27 different social classes as the impact. Such phenomenon, then, has been responded
by the people’s demand for more school accountability. The demand for accountibility requires the authority to set the standards of how to maintain the
service to the society. The standards which are set as the system to raise schools’ productivity Hague, 1995:103.
Hence, the researcher decides to develop the testing instrument, the postmodernism which is accountable is choosen as the underlying theory in order
to create an accountable system which help learners be more productive, and self fulfilled but accountable.
b. Concept of English Testing
1 Definition
Testing, according to Genesee 2007: 141 can be defined in three aspects:
First, in the aspect of content, it is about intelligence. Second, in the aspect of method, it is not a single method of collecting information. And third, in the
aspect of measurement, it tells scores that reflects attributes or characteristics of individuals and has a frame of reference.
English Testing is a part of evaluation system which Genesee, 2007:4 is primarily about decision making with the purpose of improving English teaching
and enhance English learning. The decision is formulated based on informed judgment which of components to be considered are: information, interpretation
and decision making as it is illustrated below:
28 The above figure shows us the significant role of testing in making decision
for the student’s education future. Therefore, as a part of evaluation, according to Mc Kay 2007, 20 effective testing instrument should be designed to ensure valid
and fair information on the students’ abilities and progress. A testing is valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure and it is fair when it provides
meaningful and appropriate information about students’ language use ability. She further explains that the cost of making wrong decision as the result of wrong
testing can be low stakes or high stakes in which the former ones are relatively minor and relatively easy to correct, on the other hand, the last ones are likely to
affect students’ lives and are difficult to correct”Mc Kay, 2007: 20. But, as she cites Bachman’s words, most of wrong decisions are more high stakes than we
think since many decisions that teachers and schools make have a cumulative effect on students’ future. Mc Kay, 2006: 20.
Figure 2.3. Aspects of testing
Interpreting Information
Decision making The Purpose
Collecting information
29
2 Classification
Testing, especially language testing, has been classified in many ways. Among which Genesee 1997: 152 classifies it according to whether they focus
on. They are 1 underlying linguistic competence, 2 specific aspects or sub- skills of language, 3 a specific testing methods, 4 a particular kind of
information and 5 certain kinds of decisions. Underlying linguistic competence is the underlying linguistic abilities or
language knowledge that a learner has acquired. It is abstract that it cannot be observed directly. Linguistic competence is inferred on the basis of linguistic
performance which is an individual’s ability to use language appropriately or correctly in a variety of situations such as grammatical competence, pragmatic
competence, sociolinguistic
competence, strategic
competence, and
communicative competence. Specific Linguistic sub-skills usually refer to the test content. These are
often described in terms of the grammatical features of language, such as spelling, vocabulary, grammar or syntax, pronunciation, etc. Genesee 1997: 152 says
that tests are seldom truly isolated points in nature because no test or test item depends only on one sub-skill to elimination of all others. Performance on a
grammar test, for instance, can also reflect learner’s spelling, vocabulary or discourse structure. Therefore, according to him, “what a test is actually called
depends on what the tester chooses to focus on, that is, what he chooses to score” Genesee, 1997: 153.
Specific testing methods test is a testing refers to the testing method being used. A close test, for instance, is a testing method in which words of a written
30 text have been deleted and replaced by blanks that the test taker is supposed to fill
in with appropriate words. According to Genesee 1997: 153, this test type tells nothing about the general linguistic competence or specific skills that are being
tested. Achievement, proficiency and performance tests refer to the types of
information provided by the test. Results of the test give information about student’s attainment related to instructional objectives or a defined domain of
language. For instance, a proficiency test tells information about student’s ability to use language in certain way.
The last is test type that describes certain kinds of decision made by using the test results. Placement test is one of the examples of this kind of test. It is
conducted to identify appropriate levels or types of instruction for individual students.
Genesee 1997;154 says that he cannot make generalizations about the use of the kinds of test, because the use of a test type depend on the need of the language
class which are unique.
3 Types of Test Items
Another important decision in developing testing instrument includes the types of test items. Reynolds 2009: 183 said that historically the popular
approach has been to classify tests items as either ‘objective’ or ‘subjective’ which usually referred to how the items were scored. 2009: 183. This approach
is proposed by Lamprianou 2009: 200 as follows:
31
Figure 2.4. Types of test items Lamprianou, 2009: 200
The test items should be easily scored “correct or incorrect” according to the scoring criteria. They can be scored in objective manner and are classified as
objective. Everyone agrees on which answers keyed as correct or incorrect. On the contrary, the subjective scoring test items involve subjective judgment on the part
of the individual grading the test. Therefore, Reynolds 2009: 183 said that it is not surprising that two graders might assign different grades to the same test item.
Another more direct approach classifies items as either selected-response or constructed-response items Reynolds, 2009: 183. With this approach, an item
which requires a student to select a response from available alternative is classified as a selected-response item. Multiple-choice, true-false, and matching
items are included in the selected response items. If an item requires students to create or construct a response, it is classified as a constructed-response item. Fill-
in- the blank, short answer and essay are included in the constructed response items.
To identify which test items will be used in the development of the testing instrument, the researcher digs out the information about these test items:
Restricted essay Extended essay
Project Assignment
Case study TYPES OF TEST ITEMS
OBJECTIVE SCORING SUBJECTIVE
SCORING Short answer
Completion Identification
True-False Multiple Choices
Matching
32
Multiple-Choice items
Multiple choice items Reynolds, 2009: 196 are considered as the most popular of the selected response items. They can be used in a variety of content
area and can assess both simple and complex learning outcomes. It takes the general forms of a question or an incomplete statement with a set of possible
answers, one of which is correct. These are referred to as the stem. The stem can be in the form of a direct question or an incomplete sentence. The possible
answers are referred to as alternatives. The correct answer is the answer and the incorrect alternatives are referred to as distracters. Example of Multiple choice
items are below:
Example 1 Direct –Question Format 1. Which river is the largest in the United States of America?
A. Mississippi B.
Missouri C.
Ohio D. Rio Grande
Example 2. Incomplete-Sentence Format 2. The largest river in the United States of America is the -----------
A. Mississippi B. Missouri
C. Ohio D. Rio Grande
Figure 2.5. . Example of Multiple Choice Reynolds , 2009: 196
True-False Items
True-False items Reynolds, 2009: 211 are considered the second most popular items after the multiple-choice items. These items involve a statement or
question that a student marks as true or false, agree or disagree, correct or
33 incorrect, yes or no, fact or opinion and soon. Yet, the most common form used is
true and false Reynolds, 2009: 211. Below is an example of true-false item:
Carefully read each of the following statements. If the statemen is true, underscore the T. If the statement is false, underscore the F.
1. T
F In recent years, malaria has been eliminated worldwide
2. T
F The ozone layer protects us from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Figure 2.6. Example of true-false items Reynolds, 2009: 211
Matching Items
Matching items Reynolds, 2009: 215 usually contain two columns of words or phrases. One column contains words or phrases for which the students
seek a match. Traditionally, this column is placed on the left and the phrases are referred to as premises. The second column contains words which are available
for selection. The items in this column are referred to as responses. The premises usually are numbered and the responses are identified with letters. Here is an
example of the matching items:
Column A Column B
___ 1. Helps initiate and control rapid a. basal ganglia
movement of the arms and legs b. cerebellum
‘2. Serves as a relay station connecting c. thalamus
different parts of the brain
Figure 2.7. Example of True-false items Reynolds , 2009: 217
Essay Items
An essay item Reynolds, 2009: 224 is a test item that has a question or problem for the student to respond in a written format. As a constructed response
item, Essay items require students to respond by constructing a response, not by
34 selecting among alternatives. Good essay items challenge students to organize,
analyze, integrate and synthesize information. Essay items can be classified according to their educational purpose or focus ex: evaluating content, style and
grammar, the complexity of the task presented ex: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation, and how much structure they
provide restricted or extended response. Below is an example of essay item:
1. List the types of muscle tissue and state the function of each.
Figure 2.8. Example of essay item Reynolds, 2009: 228
Short-answer items
Short-answer items Reynolds, 2009: 237 require students to supply a words, phrase, number or symbol in response to a direct question. It can also be
written in an incomplete-sentence format instead of a direct-questions format which sometimes is referred to as a completion item. Here are the examples:
Direct-Question Format.
1. What is the membrane surrounding the nucleus called? _______________
Incomplete-Sentence Format
1. The membrane surrounding the nucleus is called the ________________
Figure 2.9. Example of short-answer item Reynolds, 2009: 237
4. The Meaning of Test Results
