The Nature of English Language Teaching

4. Teaching English to Students with Visual Impairments

It is important for teachers to realize that a physical disability does not automatically impair a student‟s ability to learn. In the case of students with

physical disabilities (in the absence of other handicapping conditions), the teaching methods used are often the same as those applied in an regular school. Student with visual impairment does not automatically mean that a student has lower intelligence; but it does mean that modified ways of accessing the curriculum will be needed. It is essential for teachers not to hold low expectations of students with impaired vision, but to provide many new challenges and encourage them to do as much as possible (Westwood, 2008: 48)

Students with impaired vision require specific training in mobility (moving safely about the environment) and orientation (being familiar with various environments to the extent that you know your position relative to other objects). Hallahan & Kaufman (1994: 344) describes that many of those who recognize the limitations of the legal definition of blindness and partial sightedness favor the educational definition, which stresses the method of reading instruction. For educational purposes, individuals who are blind are so severely impaired they must learn to read Braille or use aural methods (audiotapes and records). Blind students, if they have sufficient ability, are taught Braille, an alternative written Students with impaired vision require specific training in mobility (moving safely about the environment) and orientation (being familiar with various environments to the extent that you know your position relative to other objects). Hallahan & Kaufman (1994: 344) describes that many of those who recognize the limitations of the legal definition of blindness and partial sightedness favor the educational definition, which stresses the method of reading instruction. For educational purposes, individuals who are blind are so severely impaired they must learn to read Braille or use aural methods (audiotapes and records). Blind students, if they have sufficient ability, are taught Braille, an alternative written

Westwood (2008: 49) suggest the general teaching purposes that can be integrated into the teaching method the class teacher is using with partially sighted students:

a. Encourage partially sighted students to use their residual vision effectively using the remaining vision is helpful, not harmful to these students.

b. Use a word processor or photocopier to greatly enlarge all text and notes.

c. Allow students when writing to use a fbre-tip black pen that will produce clear, bold writing.

d. Allow much more time for students with impaired vision to complete their work.

e. Read written instructions to students to reduce the amount of time required to begin a task and to ensure that the work is understood.

f. Use very clear descriptions and explanations; verbal explanation has to compensate for what the student cannot easily see.

g. Train other students, and any classroom aide or assistant you may have, to support the student with impaired vision (e.g., for note-taking, repeating explanations).

h. Speak to blind students frequently by name during lessons to engage them fully in the group learning processes. Make sure they contribute. Value their contributions in the same way that you value those of other students.

j. Ensure that your material on the board or screen is neat and clear, using larger

script than usual. Keep the board surfaces clean. k. Avoid overloading worksheets with too much information and heavy density

of print. In addition, Westwood (2008: 18) states that lectures are a valid method of teaching if the main goal is to present key information to students. In those situations, the students generally have the necessary study skills, motivation, attention span and self-management to be able to benefit from this approach. In upper primary schools and middle schools the „mini lecture‟ (10-15 minutes) is

appropriate for achieving some objectives included: (1) introducing a new topic, providing an overview, arousing interest and raising issues that can be pursued later by different methods; (2) bringing students up to date with recent information that is not readily available through other media; (3) presenting information in a quick, concise and integrated way that would otherwise take students a great deal of time to research and discover for themselves; (4) providing an opportunity for review and revision of course material (e.g., prior to examinations).

5. Intellectual Ability

At one time it was popular for researchers to compare the intelligence of sighted persons with that of persons with blindness. Using verbal tests is not entirely satisfactory because they exclude important performance areas. Some have used performance tests with individuals with visual impairment and sighted At one time it was popular for researchers to compare the intelligence of sighted persons with that of persons with blindness. Using verbal tests is not entirely satisfactory because they exclude important performance areas. Some have used performance tests with individuals with visual impairment and sighted

Heyes, an expert on education of visual impairments has conducted the research on the condition of the intelligence of children with visual impairment (Effendi, 2005: 44). The conclusion of the study as follows:

a) Visual impairment does not automatically cause lower intelligence.

b) The beginning of visual impairment does not affect the level of intelligence.

c) There are many visual impairments who success to achieve a good intellectual achievement, when the environment provides the opportunity and motivation for blind children to develop.

d) Persons with blindness do not show weakness in verbal intelligence.

6. Teaching Aids to Students with Visual Impairment

Many devices have been designed to enable a student with impaired vision to cope with the medium of print. The devices include magnification aids, closed- circuit television and microfiche readers (used to enlarge an image), talking calculators, speaking clocks, dictionaries with speech out- puts, „compressed speech‟ recordings, and thermoform duplicators used to reproduce Braille pages

or embossed pictures, diagrams and maps. Low vision aids are magnification or embossed pictures, diagrams and maps. Low vision aids are magnification

closer to the child‟s eyes without the need to lean over, or with lamp attachments for increased illumination of the page (Westwood, 2008: 48).

Furthermore, to facilitate the instruction of learners with visual impairments, the school may provide non-optical aids, tactual aids, and auditory aids. Non-optical aids include large-print texts, bookstands to reduce postrural fatigue, yellow acetate to improve the contrast between print and its background, broad-tip marking pens and pencils to increase the readability of print, and dimmer switches to increase or decrease light intensity. Among the tactual aids that can be provided in the classroom for learners with visual impairments are books, braillewriters, braille computers, slate and stylus sets, tactual globes and maps, abacus and similar counting frames, measuring devices, and various templates and writing guides. Two of more essential auditory aids are the cassette tape recorder and recorded books. The tape recorder can be used for taking notes, recording home assignments, and listening to assignments. Recorded or talking books can be used for study and leisure. A number and variety of recorded books are available through the library of congress and other institutions and organizations serving learners who are visually impaired.

Student with visual impairment have difference language skills with sighted student. Indirectly, visual impairment affects on the language skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing skills.

a. Listening Skills The importance of listening skills for children who are blind cannot be overemphasized. The less a child is able to rely on sight for gaining information from the environment, the more crucial it is that he or she becomes a good listener. Listening skills are becoming more important than ever because of the increasing accessibility of recorded material (Hallahan & Kaufman, 1994: 363). Blind individuals rely on their ability to hear or listen to gain information quickly and efficiently. Students use their sense of hearing to gain information from books on tape or CD, but also to assess what is happening around them. Jim Durkel, an outreach teacher with the Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired Outreach Program, recommends that blind students have their hearing evaluated by a good audiologist and have their skills evaluated using assessments such as those available through Learning through Listening (Tolbert, 2012).

b. Speaking Skills Students who are blind need effective communication and listening skills so they can be successful and independent. Communication is a vital component of success in the academic, vocational and social world. A difficult task for many b. Speaking Skills Students who are blind need effective communication and listening skills so they can be successful and independent. Communication is a vital component of success in the academic, vocational and social world. A difficult task for many

c. Reading Skills Reading is an essential element for academic success. Many students with disabilities have difficulty in this area. Additionally, students entering secondary schools with limited English proficiency struggle with academic subjects due to reading difficulties. English as a Second Language is burdensome to these students as they have difficulty understanding teachers and reading subject matter in a language they do not fully comprehend (Polloway, Patton, & Serna, 2001: 287).

In the case of visual impairments readers, the eye functions replaced by functions of the fingertips. Amstrong (1996: 122) explains that the Braille alphabet is based on rectangle made up of six dot position. By changing the number of dots used and varying their positions within the rectangle, Louis Braille was able to create enough variations to represent twenty-six letters, ten numerals, and all needed punctuation marks.

faster than reading through the touch. The average of reading speed of visual impairment readers is about 90-115 words per minute, while, visual readers can reach 250-300 words per minute (Simon & Huertas, 1998). This result can be assumed that the main cause of the difference is on the total of information that can be absorbed. Sighted reader can absorb w ritten information “visual fixation”, in which the field of perception from each visual fixation at least 15 letters (Simon & Huertas, 1998). Besides, in the case of reading Braille, “tactile fixation” cannot

be related with visual fixation, because reading tactual involve with the coordination of the movement of the fingers, hands and arms. In addition, if eye movements allow people to spend a few words from the text read, (although there is little fixation on most of those words), but Braille readers cannot do the same thing, because the tip of his fingers should be passed through all the letters of the text read.

d. Writing Skills Many children are delayed or disabled for reasons that also may impact their handwriting skills. For example, they may have deficits in attention or visual memory, or they may have physiological problems that inhibit the development of fine motor skills. Because writing combines fine motor skills, sequencing, language, memory, attention, thinking, skills, and visual-spatial abilities, it may be quite difficult especially for those students with learning disabilities (Polloway, Patton, & Serna, 2001: 293).

which consists of dots arising configuration. Reading Braille writing, the students should penetrate the paper when they are writing. If it is not doing, the dots cannot arise and cannot be touched. That is why writing with Braille system is slower than writing alphabet which is done by sighted person. Besides, student with visual impairment likes to listen more than to write. As a result, students writing skill are less practiced and cannot be developed well.