Language issues
Language issues
This area includes the history of language, the rise of the vernacular, education and translation as a tool for learning a foreign language. General books about alphabets and scripts (Jean, 1992), or about language (Bryson,
1990; Potter, 1950) will provide interesting background, since a good place to begin the study of translation history is with some research into linguistic history. Individual language systems have their own story of derivation and influence, and these will often detail the major changes of linguistic direction including changes in alphabet, orthography or syntax. The influence of Norman French on English language and literature after the conquest of England in 1066, or the impact of 1st and 2nd century trans- lations of Buddhist works on the syntax, vocabulary and phonology of the Chinese language, are both examples of key areas from which a study of translation history might develop.
Tracing the history of a language from its ancient to its modern forms includes looking at translation principles. Latin to modern Italian, Anglo-
67 Saxon through Middle English to modern English involves the study of
History and Translation
syntax, meaning, vocabulary, register, tone and changes in linguistic fash- ions. Thus the phenomenon of texts being translated within a single language — of intralingual translation — is encountered. Studies on language are more likely to be available in the language they describe, however many language-teaching books contain a short history of the language or an introduction outlining the main influences. For the English language there are many histories (e.g. Baugh & Cable, 1994; Crystal, 2004), and Burnley (1992) provides a source book of the different developments of English, with translations where appropriate.
Most European countries used Latin as their intellectual means of com- munication until well into the 16th century. Some writers considered their
native language as inferior or better suited to certain types of text; some, like Dante Alighieri (1263-1321) in Italy, Geoffrey Chaucer (1342-1400) in England and Martin Luther (1483-1546) in Germany, actively promoted its use. Dante's
de Vulgari Eloquentia has been translated and edited by several scholars (Botterill, 1996; Shapiro, 1990) and is a good source of information about historical attitudes to the use of vernacular languages in the Middle Ages.
One way of validating the vernacular was to write in it, another was to translate classical texts into it. Chaucer himself translated the
de Philosophae Consolatione of Boethius (480-524) out of Latin into the English of his day using short explanatory phrases within the text when he felt they were
needed (Benson, 1987). There was a strong tradition surrounding Boethius and his philosophical treatise was translated into medieval French, medi-
eval German, old and middle English (Kaylor, 1992). Martin Luther's trans- lation of the Bible into German had a substantial influence on the development of German language and Luther himself had a good deal to say about the kind of language he used in terms of syntax, register and tone. His Sendbrief von Dolmetschen translated as An Open Letter on Translating (Bachmann, 1960; Robinson, 1997b: 84) sets out his methods and strategies and is an excellent source of his translation theory.
As confidence in the vernacular increased, so its use created a need for translations of important Latin and Greek classical texts. Having these texts in the vernacular gave it status and encouraged the growth of national liter- atures. Using the vernacular became and still is one of the signs of develop- ment in the growth of national identity. A study of the vernacular Finnish epic Kalevala reveals its oral origins and its role in establishing a national literature following the dominance of Swedish as the official language of Finland (Bassnett & Lefevere, 1998). Its translation into German, Russian, English, French and Japanese underlines its status as world literature
68 A Companion to Translation Studies
(Delisle & Woodsworth, 1995: 123). The development of the nation state in Europe at various times in history has involved raising the status of the vernacular and prioritising language and literature as a mark of identity in the same way that minority languages (such as Breton in France, Euscadi in the Basque country, Welsh in Britain or Catalan in Spain) today assert
regional identities.
The use of classical language sources (Greek, Roman, Chinese, Sanskrit) as models had repercussions in the educational systems used in previous centuries. Translation was and still is used as a tool for language learning and is often the first experience of a foreign tongue. The way translation is experienced through its learning function often shapes the perception (or misperception) of translation issues. In this way the history of education in Europe sometimes complements the history of translation, or at least the way translation has been used to gain access to other cultures. The transla- tion-intensive method of teaching Greek and Latin, inherited from the Renaissance grammar schools, survives, albeit in a less vigorous form, into the 21st century. The way translation is perceived in the language learning situation often colours attitudes towards the translation process and
towards translation theory. The linguistic element will always be the basis of language transfer, however literary translation necessarily includes consideration of the cultural aspects in language and appreciation of what has come to be called 'the cultural turn' in translation studies.