Literary issues

Literary issues

This area includes literary history, history of translation theory and the work of individual translators. Just as the history of language extends understanding of the issues surrounding translation, the history of litera- ture illustrates some of the most important effects of its use. There are few literatures untouched during their development by translation as a literary

activity (see Beer & Lloyd-Jones, 1995; Ellis, 2001), and some are, or have been in the past, almost totally dependent on translation for the regenera- tion of a suppressed or declining home literature (see Even-Zohar 's article 'The Position of Translated Literature within the Literary Polysystem' in Venuti, 2000). The early history of the literature of Turkey, for example, covers a cultural overlap of three prestigious languages, Persian, Turkish and Arabic. Modernisation and the National Literature Movement of the 19th and 20th centuries required the introduction of a great number of translated works for the specific purpose of developing Turkish writing. Indian literatures engage with the translation of traditional works such as classical poetry, folk tales, the epic Mahabharata, or parts of it, from a common cultural core into the many languages of the country as well as

History and Translation

69 into European languages (Trivedi, 1993; Williams, 1991). The development

and diffusion of emergent African literatures remains dependent on inter- translation between lingua franca and source language on one level and on writing the oral traditions on another. Histories of literature may provide some of the information required.

Since the ancient classics were first translated, they have projected a considerable influence on most European if not world literatures, as well as being used as historical sources. Research into translations of the classics may be an interesting project for the translation historian. Diachronic study of the translations of Homer's Greek epics into English for example neces- sarily involves a review of translation issues in general and those relating to Homer in particular (Lathrop, 1967; Underwood, 1998). The bibliographies of such volumes afford useful links to other books about aspects of transla- tion history.

In terms of translation history, Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 Bc) and Quintus Horatius Flaccus (65-8 Bc) were not only Latin writers (and in the case of Horace an influential poet), but also had observations to make on many things, the art of translation included, and so are counted among the very earliest recorded theorists. Cicero's

de Optimo Genere Oratorum and Horace's

de Arte Poetica are often quoted as early models of translation theory. Cicero writes that when translating the Greek orators into Latin, 'I did not hold it necessary to render word for word but I preserved the general style and force of the language' (Hubbell, 1949: 365; Robinson, 1997b: 9). Horace, writing about literary translation, also discourages the literal approach: 'nor should you be so faithful a trans- lator, careful to render word for word' (Brink, 1971: 601; Robinson,

1997b: 15). Both texts are available on the Internet as part of the Perseus project at www.perseus.tufts.edu and have been translated into most Euro- pean languages at varying times in history.

Generally speaking there seem to be two main types of writing on trans- lation theory. The first is a response by writers such as Cicero and Horace, whose particular experience of translating has inspired analysis of practice in theoretical terms, or whose translation has provoked reaction that the translator feels obliged to defend. It often consists of a discussion of specific processes and strategies. The second type is more philosophical and includes speculation on the nature and effect of translation in general terms. Access to writings about later translation theory is conveniently provided in historical anthologies (Schulte & Biguenet, 1992), 20th century readers (Venuti, 2000) and collections of translation theory (Gentzler, 1993/ 2000). The writings of earlier theorists are a little more difficult to track down. There is a useful source book with brief extracts and bibliographical

72 A Companion to Translation Studies Religious and philosophical issues

This area deals with the translation that arose from the spread of philo- sophical and religious systems from one culture to another. Evangelisation, exegesis or curiosity required the translation of Buddhist texts first from Sanskrit into Chinese and later into Japanese and English, produced a Latin version of the Qur'an from Arabic and, later, European vernacular versions, and necessitated the Bible's translation from various Greek and Latin texts into one Latin version and eventually into European vernacu- lars. In fact, the spread of philosophies and religions probably accounts for more translation activity in the first two millennia CE than any other single factor and certainly accounts for the most discussion about translation.

The history of the Christian church tells the story of people such as Jerome (c342-420), Augustine of Hippo (354-430), the Wycliffite group (1390s), Martin Luther (1483-1546), William Tyndale (c1494-1536) and the

King James Bible translators (1611), who were all involved in both transla- tion and in the defence and analysis of translated texts (Long, 2001). Jerome was commissioned by Pope Damasus to edit the collected Latin texts of the New Testament into one official version and he later completed a transla- tion/editing of the Old Testament. His letter to his friend Pammachius On the Best Method of Translating (Schaff & Wace, 1979: 113; Robinson, 1997h 23; Venuti, 2000: 21), describes the kind of criticism levelled at him while at the same time defending some of his translation decisions. Augustine, his contemporary and another of his correspondents, wrote about signs and the difficulty of translating unknown or ambiguous signs in the Scriptures (Gavigan, 1966).

Martin Luther's influence through Bible translation has already been mentioned and there were others. Jan Hus (1372-1415), for example, trans- lated the Bible into his native Czech and was later executed for heresy (Delisle & Woodsworth, 1995: 140). Hus's project is said to have encour- aged Wyclif to organise his followers into a Bible translation enterprise in English. The preface to the second Wycliffite version of the 1390s, reputedly written by John Purvey, demonstrates the technical difficulties experienced by early translators (Hudson, 1988: 67) but does not mention the physical persecution to which many were subject. Initially, translation was often considered to be nothing more than the means of access to the text (this in itself was a problem because access to sacred texts was not deemed appro- priate for everyone). It grew, however, into a major consideration as the implications for exegesis and, through perceived mistranslation, heresy, became clear. Bible translation has been and continues to be an area of translation studies that produces most enthusiastic debate. It is not too

History and Translation 73

much to claim that it has been the basis of a 20th century revival in interest in translation studies in the US through the work of Eugene Nida (1947,

1964). The present day debate continues in the area of what has come to be called 'gender neutral' or 'gender inclusive translation' (Carson, 1988; Poythress & Gruden, 2000; Strauss, 1998). It must be remembered that those who come to sacred text translation often do so through intense reli- gious conviction. Consequently the translation issues involved come to take on a more vital significance. It is interesting in this context to note that in the Western tradition the earliest record of a translation experience is probably the story of the tower of Babel in the Old Testament (Genesis 11:1-

9) and this narrative has often been taken as a metaphor for translation itself (see Derrida's 'Des Tours de Babel', 1985; Steiner, 1975). Images of the Tower of Babel are regularly used as a pictorial indication of translation activity or as a logo for a translation studies department or translation company.

Translations of sacred texts often include a brief outline of their transla- tion history in the preface; see for example the preface to the King James Bible (Pollard, 1911: 301; Rhodes & Lupas, 1997) or A.J. Arberry's introduc- tion to his translation of the Qur'an (Arberry, 1955: 25). The Bible has a number of volumes devoted exclusively to its translation history (Bruce,

1961; Long, 2001; Wheeler Robinson, 1940), for Buddhism and Hindu scrip- tures the information in the histories is less specifically related to transla- tion, and there is much scope for further research in this area. The work of individual translators of the Qur'an, such as Robert Retenensis in the 12th century or George Sale in the 18th, is often referred to passim in larger volumes (Schacht & Bosworth, 1974: 98, 39). Translators of Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, Jewish and Christian holy texts are discussed in Transla-

tors through History (Delisle & Woodsworth, 1995: Chapter 6), where there are also suggestions for further reading. For a more comprehensive coverage of the translation of all kinds of sacred texts see Long (2005). The

translation schools discussed in the next section also have connections with the history of translating religious and philosophical texts.