Conclusion General The effect of biodiesel utilization in transportation sector to pollutant emission and external cost: case study Jakarta

7 Methodology The external costs are calculated by using the analysis of emission dispersion effect which is mostly known as Impact Pathway Analysis IPA. The impact pathways methodology has been used in a large number of research projects and policy application related studies. The method consists of four steps, which are : to quantify the emission, to define the dispersion and transformation of emission for calculating the ambient concentration, to estimate the physical effects by using the dose response function, and to determine the monetary value of the damage for calculating the external costs [13, 14, 15]. Figure 2 shows the summary of IPA method. Each calculation steps has an uncertainty due to the availability data limitation and the limitation of methodology of the used model. Source: Sugiyono, 2005 [13] and Kovacevic et. al., 2001 [14], Wilde et al. 2003 [15] Figure 2: External Costs Calculation by Impact Pathway Analysis Generally, this study will determine the external costs of transportation energy use by using the simulation. Each simulation is based on the scenario which is in line with the development pattern of the government policy. By comparing the base case B0 with biodiesel blends cases B10, B20, B50, and B100; therefore the strategy for reducing the external costs could be compiled. Figure 3 shows the steps of simulation methods. The following are principal tasks that have to be undertaken in order to perform the simulation. a. To assess the air pollution levels were: 8 - A collection and review of all available data with respect to air pollution levels in Jakarta. - A review of existing emission coefficient inventory for vehicle pollution sources in Jakarta. - The selection and development of emission dispersion model to estimate the pollution concentration from vehicle sources in various parts of Jakarta. - A prediction of future pollution loads caused by vehicle pollution sources in various parts of Jakarta, based on scenario planning variables including the number and type of vehicles, fuel types, etc. b. To assess the health and economic impacts were: - To study the influence of biodiesel on exhaust emission and health effects. - A collection, review and summary of earlier studies which attemped to assess the health impact of mobile source air pollution as well as the economic impact. - To estimate the value of external cost in relation to environmental quality and health improvement as affected by biodiesel utilization. Figure. 3. External Cost Simulation Flow Chart VEHICLE GROWTH MODEL Number and Type of Vehicle EMISSION QUANTIFICATION EMISSION DISPERSION MODEL IMPACT ESTIMATION EXTERNAL COST CALCULATION Historical Data Population Growth Economic Growth SCENARIO: Emission Coefficient Meteorological Data 2. Scenario B10, B20, B50 and B100 1 . Scenario Base B0 9 Outline of Dissertation The dissertation is divided into eight main chapters. Background information related to the research topic selection including the objective and benefits of the research and boundaries and methodology of the research performance will be described in Chapter 1, followed by the description of several studies related to the effect of biodiesel utilization to engine performance and its potential emission reduction. The Effect of Palm Biodiesel Fuel on the Performance and Emission of the Automotive Diesel Engine is presented in Chapter 2, and the Estimation of the Effect of Biodiesel Utilization on Transportation Sector Emission in Jakarta is presented in Chapter 3. The study on the Determination of Optimum Biodiesel-Petrodiesel Blending Scenario was performed and the result is described in chapter 4. Chapter 5, is the core chapter in estimating Jakarta’s pollution level. It covers the collected previous studies related to the dispersion model input data, the method to determine the emission factor, as well as the air dispersion simulation. Chapter 6, reveals the estimated health and economic impacts external costs of air pollution based on the calculated air pollution provided in chapter 5. Finally, the General Discussion based on the previous chapter result information will be described in Chapter 7 and concluded in Chapter 8. Other data including the source of model simulation program, projection of population growth and traffic density map, projection of emission concentration dispersion map and the numerical result of external cost estimation are presented in appendices.

CHAPTER II THE EFFECT OF PALM BIODIESEL FUEL ON THE

PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION OF AUTOMOTIVE DIESEL ENGINE Introduction Diesel fuels have an essential function in achieving social and economy objectives to establish a sustainable development and to support a country’s activities. Both transportation private and public cars, trucks, buses, locomotives, etc. and industrial sectors electric generators, farm equipment, underground mining equipment, etc. utilize these fuels extensively. From the standpoint of preserving the global environment and the concern regarding long-term supplies of conventional hydrocarbon-based diesel fuels, it is logical that research and development on different possible sources of petroleum products should be carried with emphasis on yield and quality of the diesel fuels. Alternative diesel fuels must be technically acceptable, economically competitive, environmentally acceptable and easily available. From the viewpoint of these requirements, triglycerides vegetable oilsanimal fats and their derivatives may offer as viable alternatives for diesel fuels. Vegetable oils are widely available from a variety of sources, and they are renewable. Depending upon climate and soil conditions, different nations are looking into different vegetable oils for diesel fuel. For example, soy bean oil in the United States, rapeseed and sunflower oil in Europe, palm oil in Southeast Asia mainly in Malaysia and Indonesia, and coconut oil in the Philippines are being considered as substitutes for diesel fuels. Various findings have reported that direct use of vegetable oils as diesel fuels in conventional diesel engines leads to a number of problems that related to the type and grade of oil and local climatic conditions. Vegetable oils typically show viscosities ten to twenty times higher than the viscosity of fossil diesel fuel. This high viscosity leads to poor fuel atomization and results in an incomplete combustion [16]. The high flash point attributes to its lower volatility characteristics. This leads to a more deposit formation, carbonization of injector tip, ring sticking and lubricating oil dilution and 11 degradation. Table 1 shows the comparison of fossil diesel fuel with vegetable oil characteristic [17]. Table 1. Comparison of fossil diesel fuel with vegetable oil characteristics Oil Density at 20 o

C, kgliter

Kinematics viscosity at 20 o

C, cSt ∆Hc,

MJkg Cetane Number Cloud point, o

C. Pour point,

o C. Coconut 0,915 30 37,10 40 – 42 28 23 – 26 Palm 0,915 60 36,90 38 – 40 31 23 – 40 Jatropha Curcas 0,920 77 38,00 23 – 41 2 -3 Peanut 0,914 85 39,30 30 – 41 9 -3 Soybean 0,920 61 37,30 30 – 38 -4 -20 Sunflower 0,925 58 37,75 29 – 37 -5 -16 Diesel 0,830 6 43,80 50 -9 -16 Source : Soerawidjaja, T., H., 2006 [17] It is clear that the problems with substituting vegetable oil for diesel fuel are mostly associated with their high viscosities, low volatilities and polyunsaturated character. Consequently, long term operation on neat vegetable oils or on mixture of vegetable oils with fossil diesel fuel, inevitably would result in an engine breakdown. These problems can be solved by either adapting the engine to the fuel or by adapting the fuel to the engine. Four methods widely used to reduce the high viscosity of vegetable oils to enable their use in common diesel engines without operational problems are pyrolysis, micro emulsification, dilution, and transesterification [18], but only the transesterification reaction can lead to the products commonly known as biodiesel, i.e., Alkyl esters of oil and fats [19, 20]. Pyrolysis denotes thermal decomposition reaction, usually brought about in the absence of oxygen. The cetane number of plant oils is increased by pyrolysis, and the concentrations of sulfur, water and sediment for the resulting product are acceptable. However, according to modern standards, the viscosity of the fuels is considered as too high, ash and carbon residue far exceed the values for fossil diesel, and the cold flow properties of paralyzed vegetable oils are poor [21]. The equipment for thermal cracking and pyrolysis is expensive for modest