Populisme dalam Reformulasi Politik Luar Negeri Indonesia di Era Reformasi
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DAFTAR ISI
Halaman Judul ................................................................................................
i
Halaman Pengesahan ………………………………………………………………
ii
Halaman Pernyataan ……………………………………………………………….
iii
Halaman Persembahan …………………………………………………………….
iv
Daftar Isi .........................................................................................................
v
Daftar Tabel ………………………………………………………………………..
vii
Daftar Gambar / Grafik ..………………………………………………………….
viii
Intisari .........................................................................................................
ix
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………..
x
Kata Pengantar ……………………………………………………………………..
xi
Bab I. PENDAHULUAN ..................................................................................
1
A. Politik Luar Negeri tanpa Profil ........................................................
2
B. Pokok Permasalahan ......................................................................
11
C. Tujuan Tesis ...…………………........................................................
11
D. Realisme Neoklasik sebagai Bingkai Analisis ………………………
12
E. Metode Penelitian ............................................................................
38
F. Runtutan Analisis ............................................................................
41
Bab II. POPULISME DAN ELITISME DALAM SEJARAH POLITIK LUAR NEGERI
INDONESIA ………...............................................................
A. Politik Luar Negeri sebagai Aktivitas Elitis ………............................
B. Populisme dalam Politik Luar Negeri Indonesia ..............................
C. Elaborasi de jure PLNRI Bebas Aktif ………………..……………….
D. Implementasi PLNRI Bebas Aktif di ranah Praksis …………………
BAB III. PELEMBAGAAN PLNRI DI ERA REFORMASI
45
46
55
61
66
75
A. Rencana Strategis Departemen Luar Negeri RI............................
79
B. PLNRI Semakin Populis? ..............................................................
97
C. PLNRI di dalam Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah
2004-2009 ……………………………………………………………
99
D. Reformasi Departemen Luar Negeri .............................................
105
BAB IV. PROFIL PLNRI DI ERA REFORMASI ..............................................
116
A. Elitisme PLNRI di era Reformasi ……………….............................
118
B. Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden B.J. Habibie .................................
123
C. Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden Abdurrahman Wahid ...................
131
D. Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden Megawati Soekarnoputri ……….
141
E. Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono ….
156
F. Perbandingan Profil PLNRI para presiden era Reformasi .………
175
BAB V. KESIMPULAN DAN CATATAN AKHIR ..............................................
177
DAFTAR PUSTAKA .......................................................................................
184
DAFTAR TABEL
Tabel 1 Tipologi Profil Politik Luar Negeri Republik Indonesia ………..
35
Tabel 2 Parameter Intensitas Tekanan Internasional ……………………….
35
Tabel 3 Parameter Keselarasan antara Kepentingan Elit dan Massa …….
36
Tabel 4 Contoh Skoring Hasil Analisis Muatan antara Tekanan
Internasional dan Penyelarasan Domestik ………………………….
37
Tabel 5 Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden B.J. Habibie ………………………..
130
Tabel 6 Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden Abdurrahman Wahid ……………..
141
Tabel 7 Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden Megawati Soekarnoputri ………….
155
Tabel 8 Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono …….
174
Tabel 9 Perbandingan Profil Keempat Presiden RI di Era Reformasi …….
175
DAFTAR GAMBAR/GRAFIK
Gambar 1 Bagan Alir Proses Pembentukan Profil PLNRI di Era Reformasi
33
Gambar 2 Tingkatan Kualitas PLNRI ………………………………………….
34
Gambar 3 Perbandingan Profil Keempat Presiden RI di Era Reformasi…..
175
INTISARI
Sebagai bangsa yang kemerdekaannya diraih dengan keterlibatan kekuatan rakyat semesta,
nasionalisme Indonesia terbangun dari semangat populisme. Dalam keterbatasan kapasitas
ekonomi dan militer pasca kemerdekaan, Berbagai kebijakan luar negeri RI juga mendapatkan
sambutan dan dukungan kuat dari kekuatan massa. Namun dalam perjalanan sejarah, akibat
elitisme di jaman kekuasaan Soeharto, membuat kebijakan luar negeri mengalami elitisasi.
Pengaruh massa diredam. Kebijakan dijalankan hampir secara personal oleh presiden Soeharto
sehingga politik luar negeri RI menjadi tak terlembaga baik. Perubahan sistem politik di era
Reformasi sejak jatuhnya kekuasaan Presiden Soeharto menciptakan peluang untuk melakukan
reformulasi dan pelembagaan terhadap PLNRI.
Sementara itu dalam kurun satu dasawarsa era Reformasi di Indonesia (1998-2008)
panggung politik dunia telah mengalami banyak perubahan dan dinamika yang menghadirkan
peluang serta tantangan bagi politik luar negeri Republik Indonesia, khususnya globalisasi
ekonomi dan transformasi isu-isu internasional. Ketidakjelasan profil PLNRI pada awal masa
Reformasi menjadi sebuah tantangan intelektual, yakni bagaimana menjelaskan ”profil” PLNRI
yang sering kali disimplifikasi sebagai ”tak berprofil” belaka. Reformasi memberi peluang
kembalinya populisme, namun implementasi kebijakan luar negeri RI terkadang masih tampak
elitis. Sebuah kombinasi yang menantang analisis ilmiah. Oleh karena itu secara khusus karya ini
juga mendeskripsikan faktor-faktor pembentuk profil implementasi kebijakan luar negeri RI di era
Reformasi.
Tiga bingkai analisis yang akan digunakan dalam karya ini yakni teori perimbangan
ancaman (balance of threat theory), argumen perimbangan kepentingan (balance of interest
argument), dan model mobilisasi politik (political mobilization model). Ketiga pendekatan tersebut
disebut sebagai pendekatan realisme neoklasik yang berusaha menyempurnakan pendekatan
realisme struktural. Berdasarkan bingkai analisis tersebut dirumuskan dua variabel independen
yakni intensitas tekanan internasional dan penyelarasan antara kepentingan elit dan publik
domestik. Dari situ dapat disusun lah tipologi yang menunjukkan empat varian profil PLNRI, yakni
populisme aktif, populisme reaktif, populisme semu, dan non populisme. Keempatnya merupakan
ragam profil PLNRI yang terdapat di dalam implementasi PLNRI di era Reformasi.
Dengan memanfaatkan metode analisis teks dan wacana, akan dibuktikan bahwa kedua
variabel di atas menjadi pembentuk ragam profil implementasi PLNRI. Dalam tekanan
internasional yang kuat, semakin tidak selaras kepentingan elit dan massa, PLNRI semakin tidak
populis, dan dalam tekanan internasional yang lemah, semakin tidak selaras kepentingan elit dan
massa, populisme PLNRI semakin semu.
Kata-kata kunci: politik luar negeri bebas-aktif, realisme neoklasik, elitisme, populisme, tekanan
internasional, penyelarasan domestik.
<
ABSTRACT
As a nation that gained its independence with the involvement of people power, Indonesian
nationalism was awakened by the spirit of populism. In the limited capacity of post-independence
economic and military, various implementation of Indonesia’s foreign policies also be welcomed
and got strong support from the power of the masses. But in the course of history, due to elitism
in the Soeharto era, made foreign policy to be elitisized. Influence from people muted. The
policies were run almost personally by President Suharto so that Indonesia's foreign policy
becomes uninstitutionalized. Changes of political system in the Reformasi era (reforms) since the
fall of President Suharto created opportunities to reformulate and institutionalize of Indonesia’s
foreign policy.
Meanwhile, during the first decade of Reform era in Indonesia (1998-2008) world political scene
has undergone many changes and dynamics that presents opportunities and challenges toward
Indonesia’s foreign policy, particularly the transformation of economic globalization and
international issues. Ambiguity of Indonesia’s foreign policy profile at the beginning of the
Reformasi era became an intellectual challenge, namely how to explain the "profile" that often be
simplified as just "no-profile". Reforms provides an opportunity to the spirit of populism to back in,
however the implementation of Indonesia's foreign policy sometimes seems elitist. It’s a
challenge for scientific analysis. Therefore, this work also specifically describes the factors
forming the profile of implementation of RI's foreign policy in the era of the Reform.
Three frames of analysis that will be used in this work namely the balance of threat theory,
balance of interest argument, and political mobilization model. The three approaches are referred
to as neoclassical realism approach that tries to improve the structural realism approach. Based
on the frame of analysis, it formulates two independent variables namely the intensity of
international pressure and alignment between the interests of domestic elites and the
public. Based on this argument, a typology can be constructed which shows the four
variants of PLNRI profile, namely active populism, reactive populism, pseudo populism,
and non-populism.
Using text and discourse analysis methods, this work will proof that such two variables
influence to RI’s foreign policy implementation. In the strong international pressure, the
less aligned the interests of elites and masses, the foreign policy increasingly populist,
and in a weak international pressure, the less aligned the interests of elites and masses,
the populism increasingly apparent.
Keywords: free-and-active foreign policy, neoclassical realism, elitism, populism,
international pressure, domestic alignment.
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DAFTAR ISI
Halaman Judul ................................................................................................
i
Halaman Pengesahan ………………………………………………………………
ii
Halaman Pernyataan ……………………………………………………………….
iii
Halaman Persembahan …………………………………………………………….
iv
Daftar Isi .........................................................................................................
v
Daftar Tabel ………………………………………………………………………..
vii
Daftar Gambar / Grafik ..………………………………………………………….
viii
Intisari .........................................................................................................
ix
Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………..
x
Kata Pengantar ……………………………………………………………………..
xi
Bab I. PENDAHULUAN ..................................................................................
1
A. Politik Luar Negeri tanpa Profil ........................................................
2
B. Pokok Permasalahan ......................................................................
11
C. Tujuan Tesis ...…………………........................................................
11
D. Realisme Neoklasik sebagai Bingkai Analisis ………………………
12
E. Metode Penelitian ............................................................................
38
F. Runtutan Analisis ............................................................................
41
Bab II. POPULISME DAN ELITISME DALAM SEJARAH POLITIK LUAR NEGERI
INDONESIA ………...............................................................
A. Politik Luar Negeri sebagai Aktivitas Elitis ………............................
B. Populisme dalam Politik Luar Negeri Indonesia ..............................
C. Elaborasi de jure PLNRI Bebas Aktif ………………..……………….
D. Implementasi PLNRI Bebas Aktif di ranah Praksis …………………
BAB III. PELEMBAGAAN PLNRI DI ERA REFORMASI
45
46
55
61
66
75
A. Rencana Strategis Departemen Luar Negeri RI............................
79
B. PLNRI Semakin Populis? ..............................................................
97
C. PLNRI di dalam Rencana Pembangunan Jangka Menengah
2004-2009 ……………………………………………………………
99
D. Reformasi Departemen Luar Negeri .............................................
105
BAB IV. PROFIL PLNRI DI ERA REFORMASI ..............................................
116
A. Elitisme PLNRI di era Reformasi ……………….............................
118
B. Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden B.J. Habibie .................................
123
C. Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden Abdurrahman Wahid ...................
131
D. Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden Megawati Soekarnoputri ……….
141
E. Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono ….
156
F. Perbandingan Profil PLNRI para presiden era Reformasi .………
175
BAB V. KESIMPULAN DAN CATATAN AKHIR ..............................................
177
DAFTAR PUSTAKA .......................................................................................
184
DAFTAR TABEL
Tabel 1 Tipologi Profil Politik Luar Negeri Republik Indonesia ………..
35
Tabel 2 Parameter Intensitas Tekanan Internasional ……………………….
35
Tabel 3 Parameter Keselarasan antara Kepentingan Elit dan Massa …….
36
Tabel 4 Contoh Skoring Hasil Analisis Muatan antara Tekanan
Internasional dan Penyelarasan Domestik ………………………….
37
Tabel 5 Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden B.J. Habibie ………………………..
130
Tabel 6 Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden Abdurrahman Wahid ……………..
141
Tabel 7 Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden Megawati Soekarnoputri ………….
155
Tabel 8 Profil PLNRI di masa Presiden Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono …….
174
Tabel 9 Perbandingan Profil Keempat Presiden RI di Era Reformasi …….
175
DAFTAR GAMBAR/GRAFIK
Gambar 1 Bagan Alir Proses Pembentukan Profil PLNRI di Era Reformasi
33
Gambar 2 Tingkatan Kualitas PLNRI ………………………………………….
34
Gambar 3 Perbandingan Profil Keempat Presiden RI di Era Reformasi…..
175
INTISARI
Sebagai bangsa yang kemerdekaannya diraih dengan keterlibatan kekuatan rakyat semesta,
nasionalisme Indonesia terbangun dari semangat populisme. Dalam keterbatasan kapasitas
ekonomi dan militer pasca kemerdekaan, Berbagai kebijakan luar negeri RI juga mendapatkan
sambutan dan dukungan kuat dari kekuatan massa. Namun dalam perjalanan sejarah, akibat
elitisme di jaman kekuasaan Soeharto, membuat kebijakan luar negeri mengalami elitisasi.
Pengaruh massa diredam. Kebijakan dijalankan hampir secara personal oleh presiden Soeharto
sehingga politik luar negeri RI menjadi tak terlembaga baik. Perubahan sistem politik di era
Reformasi sejak jatuhnya kekuasaan Presiden Soeharto menciptakan peluang untuk melakukan
reformulasi dan pelembagaan terhadap PLNRI.
Sementara itu dalam kurun satu dasawarsa era Reformasi di Indonesia (1998-2008)
panggung politik dunia telah mengalami banyak perubahan dan dinamika yang menghadirkan
peluang serta tantangan bagi politik luar negeri Republik Indonesia, khususnya globalisasi
ekonomi dan transformasi isu-isu internasional. Ketidakjelasan profil PLNRI pada awal masa
Reformasi menjadi sebuah tantangan intelektual, yakni bagaimana menjelaskan ”profil” PLNRI
yang sering kali disimplifikasi sebagai ”tak berprofil” belaka. Reformasi memberi peluang
kembalinya populisme, namun implementasi kebijakan luar negeri RI terkadang masih tampak
elitis. Sebuah kombinasi yang menantang analisis ilmiah. Oleh karena itu secara khusus karya ini
juga mendeskripsikan faktor-faktor pembentuk profil implementasi kebijakan luar negeri RI di era
Reformasi.
Tiga bingkai analisis yang akan digunakan dalam karya ini yakni teori perimbangan
ancaman (balance of threat theory), argumen perimbangan kepentingan (balance of interest
argument), dan model mobilisasi politik (political mobilization model). Ketiga pendekatan tersebut
disebut sebagai pendekatan realisme neoklasik yang berusaha menyempurnakan pendekatan
realisme struktural. Berdasarkan bingkai analisis tersebut dirumuskan dua variabel independen
yakni intensitas tekanan internasional dan penyelarasan antara kepentingan elit dan publik
domestik. Dari situ dapat disusun lah tipologi yang menunjukkan empat varian profil PLNRI, yakni
populisme aktif, populisme reaktif, populisme semu, dan non populisme. Keempatnya merupakan
ragam profil PLNRI yang terdapat di dalam implementasi PLNRI di era Reformasi.
Dengan memanfaatkan metode analisis teks dan wacana, akan dibuktikan bahwa kedua
variabel di atas menjadi pembentuk ragam profil implementasi PLNRI. Dalam tekanan
internasional yang kuat, semakin tidak selaras kepentingan elit dan massa, PLNRI semakin tidak
populis, dan dalam tekanan internasional yang lemah, semakin tidak selaras kepentingan elit dan
massa, populisme PLNRI semakin semu.
Kata-kata kunci: politik luar negeri bebas-aktif, realisme neoklasik, elitisme, populisme, tekanan
internasional, penyelarasan domestik.
<
ABSTRACT
As a nation that gained its independence with the involvement of people power, Indonesian
nationalism was awakened by the spirit of populism. In the limited capacity of post-independence
economic and military, various implementation of Indonesia’s foreign policies also be welcomed
and got strong support from the power of the masses. But in the course of history, due to elitism
in the Soeharto era, made foreign policy to be elitisized. Influence from people muted. The
policies were run almost personally by President Suharto so that Indonesia's foreign policy
becomes uninstitutionalized. Changes of political system in the Reformasi era (reforms) since the
fall of President Suharto created opportunities to reformulate and institutionalize of Indonesia’s
foreign policy.
Meanwhile, during the first decade of Reform era in Indonesia (1998-2008) world political scene
has undergone many changes and dynamics that presents opportunities and challenges toward
Indonesia’s foreign policy, particularly the transformation of economic globalization and
international issues. Ambiguity of Indonesia’s foreign policy profile at the beginning of the
Reformasi era became an intellectual challenge, namely how to explain the "profile" that often be
simplified as just "no-profile". Reforms provides an opportunity to the spirit of populism to back in,
however the implementation of Indonesia's foreign policy sometimes seems elitist. It’s a
challenge for scientific analysis. Therefore, this work also specifically describes the factors
forming the profile of implementation of RI's foreign policy in the era of the Reform.
Three frames of analysis that will be used in this work namely the balance of threat theory,
balance of interest argument, and political mobilization model. The three approaches are referred
to as neoclassical realism approach that tries to improve the structural realism approach. Based
on the frame of analysis, it formulates two independent variables namely the intensity of
international pressure and alignment between the interests of domestic elites and the
public. Based on this argument, a typology can be constructed which shows the four
variants of PLNRI profile, namely active populism, reactive populism, pseudo populism,
and non-populism.
Using text and discourse analysis methods, this work will proof that such two variables
influence to RI’s foreign policy implementation. In the strong international pressure, the
less aligned the interests of elites and masses, the foreign policy increasingly populist,
and in a weak international pressure, the less aligned the interests of elites and masses,
the populism increasingly apparent.
Keywords: free-and-active foreign policy, neoclassical realism, elitism, populism,
international pressure, domestic alignment.
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