8
b. Typology of Bilingualism
Weinreich 1953 and Ervin and Osgood 1954, as cited in the work of Hakuta 1986, p. 95, classify bilingualism into two types, namely, compound and
coordinate bilingualism. Each type will be described briefly in the following parts.
1 Compound Bilingualism According to Hakuta 1986, compound bilinguals are products of a
learning environment where the two languages are used concurrently. He also states, “They tend to fuse the two languages such that, in their mental system,
concepts have verbal labels from both languages attached to them ” p. 95. This
definition is supported by Weinreich 1968, as summarized by Romaine 1995, p. 79, who states,
“The compound bilinguals would have one set of meanings and two linguistics systems tied to them.” Romaine 1995 provides her explanation
with an example of a French-German bilingual. A French-German bilingual would know both German
Buch
- book and French
livre
, but he or she would tie them into the same mental representation, hence one common meaning p. 79.
Therefore, it is also possible for an Indonesian-English compound bilingual to address both English ‘tofu’ and Indonesian ‘tahu’ as the same because he or she
also has one set of meanings and one mental representation for them.
Based on the explanation of compound bilingualism, the writer can conclude that compound bilinguals have the tendency to translate words from one
language into another language and vice versa with no changes in meaning. It happens because they are able to address things with the languages they acquire
but they have the same mental representation when they switch the languages.
9 Taking an example as stated before, for English-Indonesian compound bilinguals,
the words ‘tofu’ and ‘
tahu
’ refer to the same mental representation with no
difference in meaning.
2 Coordinate Bilingualism This type of bilingualism requires a different environment from the
previous one. Hakuta 1986 states that coordinate bilinguals learn the two languages in separate environments, most commonly when they are educated in a
language different from their home language pp. 95-96. Furthermore, Romaine 1995 believes that the words of the two languages are kept separate with each
word having its own specific meaning. This explanation is represented in the example of a French-English bilingual whose first language is English, but then
learns French at school. Because the two languages are given to the person in different contexts, it is believed that different conceptual systems would be
developed Romaine, 1995, pp. 78-79. For example, Romaine says that this bilingual would have one specific meaning for the term
livre
which is different from the meaning of the word
book
.
Based on Romaine’s theory, the writer concludes that, unlike an English-Indonesian compound bilingual who would take the meaning of the
English word ‘tofu’ and Indonesian word ‘
tahu
’ as the same, a coordinate bilingual thinks that the English word ‘tofu’ has its own meaning and it is
different from the meaning of the Indonesian word ‘
tahu.
’ The point here is that coordinate bilinguals believe that there is a difference in meaning between the
languages they acquire.
10
In conclusion, it can be seen that there are some different characteristics
between the two types of bilingualism. Weinreich 1968 believes that those differences are resulted from the way in which the languages have been learned
as cited by Romaine, 1995, p. 78. Compound bilinguals, who learn two languages in the same context, would have a fused representation of the languages
in mind Romaine, 1995, p. 79. On the other hand, coordinate bilinguals learn the two languages in separate environments. Hence, they give different meanings to
the words from each language Romaine, 1995, pp. 78-79. 2.
Code-mixing a. Definition of Code-mixing
Firstly, the writer will begin by proposing the theory of Plaff 1979, as
quoted by Romaine 1995, p. 124, who defines ‘mixing’ as a neutral cover term
for both code-switching and borrowing. In the writer’s opinion, following Plaffs
account, the term ‘mixing’ refers to code-mixing. Therefore, code-mixing is defined as a case of both code-switching and borrowing.
Code-switching itself is defined by Grosejan 1998 as a complete shift from one language to the other, ... Cantone, 2007, p. 55. The shift can be
found at clauses, which is called inter-sentential switching, or within clauses, which is known as intra-sentential switching Romaine, 1995, p. 123. On the
other hand, Myers-Scotton 2006 states that borrowing is a process when a language takes in words from another language. He also claims that borrowing
includes lexical elements, such as nouns and verbs p. 209. In other words,
11 lexical borrowing deals with the act of borrowing single words from one language
in order to be used in another language pattern. In conclusion, a language phenomenon is called code-mixing if it has
the features of code-switching or borrowing. This definition is supported by Muysken 2000 who states, Code-mixing refers to all cases where lexical items
and grammatical features from two languages appear in one sentence. The following is an example of English-German code-mixing taken from Cantones
work 2007, p. 70, I go to the movie with my
fratello
, which means I go to the movie with my brother.
b. Typology of Code-mixing Code-mixing is classified based on its usage and its emergence.
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