204 J. Lomas et al. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 103 2000 197–208
seven out of the eight RMTCs agricultural meteorolog- ical training is provided. However, the level of instruc-
tion and the target population is extremely different. Basically four main types of training and education
in agricultural meteorology can be noted in Table 1. 1. Academic instruction in Kenya and Nigeria, lead-
ing to an M.Sc. or Ph.D. degree in Meteorology, with specialization in agricultural meteorology in
cooperation with the Universities; 2. Courses in agricultural meteorology in Egypt, Is-
rael and Kenya, providing a basic background of the interrelationship between climate and agricul-
tural production; 3. Some specialized short duration courses in Algeria
and Russia; 4. Training of agricultural meteorological technicians
as is the case in Egypt and Niger. 4.3. Summary of the current status
From an analysis of the education and training fa- cilities of the academic institutions and the in-service
facilities, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. Agricultural meteorology is a post graduate subject
at the M.Sc. as well as the Ph.D. level at some academic institutions. One university offers it at the
undergraduate level University of the Orange Free State;
2. Where available the post graduate studies are usu- ally to be found in the Agronomy department of
universities although some universities have it in other departments e.g. Department of Meteorol-
ogy — Reading University, Department of Atmo- spheric sciences — University of Missouri, Depart-
ment of Physics — University of Zimbabwe;
3. The number of graduates studying agricultural me- teorology is small in comparison to other graduate
subjects as the demand for agricultural meteoro- logical scientists is small when compared to other
fields;
4. In-service training facilities provide training of meteorological personnel in agricultural meteorol-
ogy, especially in the larger weather services; 5. Training is extremely heterogeneous and varies
from one country centre to another; 6. At RMTCs, training is provided for academic as
well as technical personnel; 7. Very little instruction in agricultural meteorology
is provided to the agronomy community; thus, the potential user groups of agricultural meteorolog-
ical information lack sufficient understanding of agricultural meteorology in order to make use of
the information provided. This seems clear from a recent survey by the European Commission of 19
countries of Western Europe Wieringa, 1996 and means that we must provide programmes not only
for the specialists in our subject but also for the much wider range of people who must understand
the specialists’ messages in order to act effectively upon them.
5. Constraints in human resource development in agricultural meteorology
The constraints of education and training pro- grammes, especially in developing countries, may
include the following: 1. A rigid ‘two tier’ curriculum in academic institu-
tions at post graduate level; 2. Lack of systematic follow-up, and of evaluation of
post-training performance, especially in in-service training;
3. Poor selection of candidates for agricultural me- teorology training programmes selection is often
made on the basis of seniority or personal contacts rather than relevance and objectivity indicating
an inadequate training policy at the organisational level;
4. Diminishing financial resources.
6. Agricultural meteorology — future needs
6.1. Future needs — academic institutions Agricultural meteorology has advanced during the
last 100 years from a descriptive to a quantitative science using physical and biological principles. The
operational application of agricultural meteorology has, however, lagged behind due to a lack of co-
operation between the agricultural services and an unconvinced farming community. Furthermore, in
most of the developed world overproduction of some of the agricultural commodities and a growing
J. Lomas et al. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 103 2000 197–208 205
interest in rural ecology dampened the interest and use of agricultural meteorological services that were ‘tai-
lor made’ for maximum production. The development of effective agricultural meteorological education pro-
grammes remains a challenge for the 21st century. It is important that these be developed for specific cir-
cumstances, as the requirements in different regions differ substantially.
Models of agricultural meteorological programmes have been prepared in the past by Robertson 1980,
and for pest management by Omar 1980. The eco- nomic impact of agricultural meteorology was dis-
cussed by McQuigg 1975. It seems that in the future the demand for such programmes will come mainly
from the developing countries. There is an urgent need to prepare a syllabus acceptable to the academic
institutions for use in the training of agricultural ex- tension and farm advisory officers: for this, the new
WMO Guide-lines for Education WMO, 2000 could be used as a reference. Most agricultural extension
personnel are more frequently in contact with the farming community than most agricultural meteorol-
ogists. The acceptance by the farming community of the agrometeorological products is, therefore, depen-
dent on an understanding and cooperative extension service Perry, 1994.
Prior to designing training programmes in agricul- tural meteorology it is necessary to ascertain the needs
of the target group. Having identified, verified and placed the training needs in some form of priority,
writing of instructional objectives follows. The suc- cess of a training programme will depend on how well
the objectives are identified and documented Gagne and Briggs, 1979.
Due to diminishing financial resources for agricul- tural meteorology training purposes, there is an urgent
need for institutions in developed countries to conduct training programmes in collaboration with developing
nations’ institutions as already demonstrated by the TTMI project. This will help maximise the resources
available because there are training programmes in developed countries specially tailored for developing
countries. There is a need to reassess the capacity of the training institutions in developing nations to con-
duct such joint ventures. The TTMI evaluation reports could be used as a starting point Stigter et al., 1995.
Development of linkages between universities in a region to share course components and graduate
research opportunities should be explored as well. There are several ways in which such arrangements
can be achieved. Firstly, a student could visit a co- operating institution and take courses not available at
hisher home institution. Secondly, an institution could offer a series of short courses for credit and invite stu-
dents for a few weeks to take these courses. In a similar manner, cooperative agreements could be established
between institutions in various countries to work together in the education of students Blad, 1994.
Blad 1994 questioned whether or not there should be an undergraduate major in agricultural meteorol-
ogy in the US. He concluded that one was probably not needed yet, but it is a question that should be
given careful examination over the next decade or two. Agricultural meteorologists should, however, be
actively involved in B.Sc. degree programmes and in related disciplines that help prepare students for grad-
uate studies in agricultural meteorology. Introductory undergraduate courses will stimulate both interest in
agricultural meteorology and educate students in basic principles required for making rational and educated
decisions about agricultural, environmental and other issues of importance to society today and in the fu-
ture. The University of Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, for example, offers environmental physics and instrumen-
tation as such introductory courses. The University of the Orange Free State South Africa already offers
an undergraduate agricultural meteorology major, al- though it registers few students each academic year.
The provision of such courses needs staff of consider- able experience, enthusiasm and dedication since they
are likely to be working in a department whose gen- eral thrust is far from their own scientific background.
Evaluation is an extremely important feature of any education or training programme and should be
performed for all agricultural meteorology training programmes to determine the extent to which the
objectives have been achieved. Training evaluation involves a systematic collection of descriptive and
judgemental information necessary to make effective decisions related to the selection, adoption, value
and modification of various instructional activities. This information plays a key role in quality control
of the training system by providing feedback on the effectiveness of the training methods being used, the
achievement of the objectives by both trainees and trainers and whether the needs originally identified
206 J. Lomas et al. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 103 2000 197–208
at the institutional and individual level have been satisfied.
6.2. Future needs — service institutions The scientific manpower requirements for agricul-
tural meteorology are small when compared with the requirements for agronomy or other fields. The small
size makes the field of agricultural meteorology par- ticularly vulnerable to financial cuts by governments.
Consequently, it is likely that this interdisciplinary science will be exposed to a reduction in financial
allocations, and that there will be attempts to com- bine training facilities with other related sciences
Environmental or Plant PhysiologyAgronomy or to reduce the number of institutions providing education
and training in agricultural meteorology. Should such a situation occur, the number of research and ser-
vice personnel dedicated to agricultural meteorology will be reduced, especially in the developed world.
In-service training programmes need to prepare in- dividuals to deal with the challenges. In addition, an
infrastructure needs to be developed to deliver the products to the farmer.
The future for agricultural meteorology depends, to a large extent, on having scientifically concerned
and informed citizens who recognize the critical role that agricultural meteorologists play in meeting crit-
ical challenges facing all nations Blad, 1994. This calls for user education. Permanent representatives
with WMO should get involved in policy discus- sions at the national level. This activity will not only
make policy-makers aware of the value of agricul- tural meteorology, but it can help to develop policy
and legislation that uses the expertise of agricultural meteorologists.
To emphasize the wide range of problems where agricultural meteorologists can help to find solutions,
we can categorize them as follows: this is a list of the services which will be required by agriculture for the
21st century. 1. Long-term planning, which includes
1.1. Climate risk analysis; 1.2. Impact of climate change and variability;
1.3. Environmental degradation assessment and avoidance;
1.4. Ecosystem sustainability; 1.5. Drought preparedness.
2. Methodological recommendations, which include 2.1. Storage and transport;
2.2. Optimum time for planting, weeding fertiliz- ing, etc;
2.3. Microclimate and topoclimate modifications; 2.4. Soil moisture management;
2.5. Water supply maintenance, including water quality.
3. Operational decisions, which include 3.1. Current production forecasting;
3.2. Irrigation scheduling; 3.3. Pest, disease and weed control.
Under these headings, the subject areas are common to countries at all stages of development, but the
priorities and specific applications obviously vary very widely.
7. Future outlook
