5. This study helps parents to understand that they are the first people that are
in contact to the children so they need to know how to treat their children appropriately.
D. Definition of Terms
There are some terms used in this study. The definition of those terms are described in this section. They are:
1. Gender
According to Unger 1979, gender is defined as social label, the traits and behavior that are regarded by the culture to men and women. The social label is
about the characteristics that the culture describes to each sex and sex-related characteristics that individuals assign to themselves as cited in Brannon, 1996, p.
11. Sherif 1982 states that gender is “a scheme for social cartegorization of
individuals” as cited in Brannon, 1996, p. 11.
2. Gender Schema
Bem states that a schema is a cognitive representation of the general structure of something familiar. The gender-schema model proposes that, early in
life, children develop schemas for “boy” and “girl”. These schemas result
principally from two factors. One is the child‟s inborn tendency to organize and classify information from the environment. The other is our culture‟s heavy
emphasis on providing gender distinguishing cues such as clothing, names, and occupations, which make these concepts easily identifiable 1981, in Vasta,
1998. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
3. Mind
Harris 1991 describes that the understanding of mind is not the work of a theory, it is a work of the imagination . He notes that even young children are
very good at pretending and imagining and says young children and adults understand others minds by simply imagining what the other feels, thinks, and
wants as cited in Bartsch, 1995, p. 175. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
7
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter consists of review of related studies, review of related theories, and theoretical framework. Review of related studies is used to review
the studies that have been done previously and to show the difference between this research and those researches in the past. Review of related theories is about
theories that are relevant to this research. The last part is theoretical framework which summarizes the theories and reviews used in this study.
A. Review of Related Studies
Martin 2004 states that children are considered as gender detectives who are very curious to search for cues about gender, especially about who should or
should not engage in a particular activity, who can play with whom, and why girls and boys are different. Cognitive perspectives on gender development
assume that children are being active to search for many ways to find the meaning of something and make sense of the social world that surrounds them.
They do all of those things by using the gender cues provided by society to help them interpret what they see and hear p.67. In 1997, Grolnick, Deci, Ryan
states that many studies show children of parents who are more autonomy PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
supportive, more likely to spontaneously explore and extend themselves rather
than children who have more controlling parents as cited in Ryan, 2000, p.59.
Miller 2002 explains that in natural settings, it is difficult to assess the role of cognition because patterns of behavior are also influenced by
children‟s prior experiences. Nevertheless, a few longitudinal analyses have shown that once
children know gender stereotypes, their personal preferences show the gender type more. In her study, it has been difficult to generate neutral stimuli because
children appear to seize on any element that may implicate a gender norm so that they may categorize it as male or female. Experimental research also suggests that
young children are quick to jump to conclusions about sex differences, even on the basis of only a single instance as cited in Martin, 2004, p. 69.
Killen 2015 states that current research on conscience examines how
young children develop mechanisms for inhibiting negative behavior and promoting positive behavior as a result of internalizing parental norms.
Conscience is conceptualizedas an inner guidance or self-regulatory system involving an integration of moral emotion and conduct with limited focus on
cognition. This emphasis is partly on the development of a mutually responsive orientation between the parents and child that sensitizes the child to learn proper
conduct, codes of caring for others, and committed compliance. This is exemplified by
Kochanska‟s research on conscience Kochanska Aksan, 2006
as well as Thompson‟s research on early childhood morality Thompson,
2014 .
