THEORETICAL REVIEW FRAMEWORK The professional functions and communicative competence in english health officials.

CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW FRAMEWORK

The chapter reviews some theories that become the bases for the discussion. The discussion will be divided into two main parts, namely, theoretical review and theoretical framework. The theoretical review discusses four major points. They are professional functions, communicative competence, English for Specific Purpose ESP and syllabus design. The discussion starts with the professional functions and precedes to the communicative competences which will become the bases for designing a syllabus. The discussion on communicative competences comprises their development and elements as well as their roles in adult learning. The next discussion is on the program for learners having specific purpose in learning English. The program to be discussed in the English for Specific Purpose Program ESP. ESP also serves as the background of this research since the English for Health Officials is part of it. The discussion on ESP talks about the ESP development, categories and components. The last part discusses syllabus design within which the competence- based syllabus design, needs analysis and the steps in syllabus development are reviewed. Finally, all the discussion reviewed will be compiled within a framework provided in the second subchapter.

A. Theoretical Review

This sub- chapter elaborates theories of the professional functions, the communicative competence, the English for Specific Purposes ESP and the syllabus design.

1. Professional Functions

Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office PHO as a public health office organization serves a number of functions on public health management. As a provincial office, PHO coordinates and manages health programs and activities performed by PHO itself as well as by the districts. As the main functions of PHO are coordinating and managing, PHO maintains health resource management. In line with the research’s objectives which involves health officials, the health resource management concerns with the human resource management. Syakdiah 2001 mentions that the important asset owned by an organization and mostly concerned about by the management is that of the human resource of the organization. People human represent elements which always exist in every organization. These people formulate, innovate and attain the objectives of the organization. She continues that viewed from the perspective of organization, these people are the resources. They are not the inanimate resources as capital, land, or factories, but they are the human resources. The health officials as the human resource of PHO mobilize other relevant resources in the PHO organization. They represent the most important resource in the organization due to two reasons Syakdiah, 2001. First, the 12 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI human resource affects the efficiency and efficacy of the organization. The health officials in their organization design and produce health services, control the quality, promote the health products and services, allocate the financial resource, and determine the overall objectives of the organization. Second, human resource represents the main outcome of the organization. In general, according to Syakdiah 2001 the human resource management includes: ƒ Planning Planning refers to determining programs which contribute to the objective attainment as set up by the organization. ƒ Organizing After a series of actions set up by the organization, the organization needs to organize the attainment process. The organization represents the tool to attain the objectives, organizing means designing the structure of various relation among jobs, personnel and other physical factors. ƒ Directing and motivating This motivating function is important. This function attempts to mobilize people to work together effectively. ƒ Controlling This managerial function is related with organizing the activities so the activities run as planned. ƒ Procuring This function attempts to gain proper personnel in order to attain the organization’s objectives. 13 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI ƒ Training and development This function improves the capability of the human resource. ƒ Compensating This function is formulated as rewards for the human resource for their contribution in the attainment of the organization’s objectives. ƒ Integrating Integrating concerns with the adjustment of individual’s interests with those of the organization ƒ Maintaining This function maintains and improves the existing condition ƒ Separating This function is to terminate the occupational relation of a staff with the organization. As the research concerns, the health officials as the human resource of PHO also perform the above functions in their general occupational activities. However, the research limits its study on the professional functions performed by the health officials in their international relation and communication.

2. Communicative Competences

The discussion on communicative competences comprises their development and elements as well as their roles in adult learning.

a. Development of Communicative Competences

When one uses language to communicate, he she use signs in the forms of sounds and letters. Likewise, the health officials communicate and maintain their international relationship through language, both written and spoken. The 14 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI signs are not uttered or written randomly; there are rules to govern so that the signs are understood by others. The rules are called grammar. Sounds and letters which are used governed by rules are used by society in the same cultural context. Hence, language represents a system of social semiotic Holliday, 2002. Language is used by the society as an social interaction tool. The implication is that a person who lives alone will not be able to use language; being able to use language requires the presence of other persons. Different view of language is as presented by Chomsky 1978 in which he views language as a set of rules. Linguistics developed by Chomsky and his followers is the idealized linguistics; therefore, competence and performance are considered different. Competence, in its real meaning, refers to language which still exists in its ideal form in a person’s brain, and performance refers to a form of language which is full of errors in the grammar, vocabularies, repetition, hesitation, etc. According to Chomsky 1965, competence consists of the mental representation of linguistic rules which constitute the speaker-hearer’s internalized grammar. Performance consists of the comprehension and production of language. Because the rules the learner has internalized are not open to direct inspection, it has been necessary to examine how the learner performs, mainly in production Ellis, 1990. The shift of interest away from linguistic competence and towards communicative competence occurred at a time when theoretical studies of semantics had not really been much applied to the teaching of languages. By 1980, attitudes towards teaching vocabulary were not at all that different from what they had been twenty years earlier, and were largely dominated by ideas 15 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI inherited from the 1930s Brown et al. 1996 . The 1960s saw a shift away from vocabulary, and the adoption of a general assumption that most learners could get by adequately with a very limited vocabulary Brown et al., 1996. Lyons in Brown et al 1996 offers a more or less uncontroversial, non- technical definition of linguistic competence: Linguistic competence is the knowledge of particular languages, by virtue of which knowledge those who have it are able to produce and understand utterance in those languages. ‘Competence’ definitely and unequivocally refers to something in an individual’s mind or brain. Where as ‘performance’, according to him refers to the production and understanding of utterances in particular languages. When ‘performance’ is defined by linguists in relation to competence, it is usually defined in its process sense. Dell Hymes in Brown et al. 1996 coins the term ‘communicative competence’ to label the ability to produce situationally acceptable, and more especially socially acceptable, utterances. Hymes proposes to use “competence” as the most general term for the capabilities of a person. He adds that it is dependent on ‘tacit knowledge’ and ‘ability for use’ and the inclusion of ability for use as part of competence allows in not only cognitive factors, but also noncognitive factors as motivation. By ‘performance’ is meant actual use and actual events. So communicative competence is what enables a person to perform appropriately in speech events. It includes not only grammatical competence, which allows a person to judge whether and to what degree something is formally possible, but also the competence to judge feasibility, appropriateness, and whether something is in fact done. 16 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Selinker points out that the performance of L2 speakers varies in complex ways, both between individuals and from the performance of L1 speakers. What is less clear is how far, if at all, this variation in performance allows for any claims to be made about the nature of the grammars known by L2 speakers. Interlanguage competence is said to be of three types: fossilized, functional and transitional competence Brown et al., 1996

b. Elements of Communicative Competences

The most recent model of communicative competences in language education literatures is that proposed by Celce-Murcia, Dornyei and Thurrell 1995 which is compatible with theoretical view stating that language is communication, not just a set of rules. The implication is that the communicative competence formulated is to prepare learners to communicate using language in order to participate in the language community. This model is formulated as Communicative Competence represented in Celce-Murcia et al. 1995 as follows: Socio- Cultural Competence Strategic Competence Linguistic Competence Actional Competence Discourse Competence Figure 2.1 . Communicative competence model Celce-Murcia et al. 1995 17 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 1 Discourse Competence Learners must develop discourse competence which is concerned with intersentential relationship Shumin in Richards Renandya, 2002. In discourse, whether formal or informal, the rules of cohesion and coherence apply, which aid in holding the communication together in a meaningful way. In communication, both the production and comprehension of a language require one’s ability to perceive and process stretches of discourse, and to formulate representation of meaning from referents in both previous sentences and following sentences. Therefore, effective speakers should acquire a large repertoire of structures and discourse markers to express ideas, show relationships of time, and indicate cause, contrast, and emphasis. Whereas according to Canale Swain in Richards Rodgers 2001 discourse competence concerns with the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text. Moreover Savignon in Celce-Murcia 2001 refers the interconnectedness as to series of utterances, written words, and or phrases to form a text, a meaningful whole, bottom – up processing and top down processing, coherence and cohesion, global meaning and structural links. 2 Actional Competence Yalden 1987 accentuates that learning a language should not be the end in itself, it should account how it is used in real communication. This is in line with Finocchiaro as cited in Brown, 1987 who mentions that language is the means used by people to communicate and interact. 18 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Similarly, the competence is referred as to actional competence because when someone says something, he she actually do something. He she may ask for services, give compliment, ask for information, etc Landasan Filosofis Teoritis Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, 2004. In brief, when someone uses language, spoken or written, every utterance that he she make could be labeled as actional language. 3 Linguistic Competence Linguistic competence includes tacit, subconscious knowledge of language structures, not normally available for spontaneous report, but implicitly in what the ideal speaker can say. It is dependent on innate structure, and acquired independently of sociocultural feature except for the mere presence of speech in the environment. Linguistic performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations, but under the idealization quoted by Lyons performance cannot directly reflect competence and nor can it have any major effect on it Brown et al.,1996. Linguistic competence is an umbrella concept that includes increasing expertise in grammar morphology, syntax, vocabulary, and mechanics. Mechanics refer to basic sounds of letters and syllables, pronunciation of words, intonation and stress. Linguistic competence enables speakers to use and understand English language structures accurately and unhesitatingly, which contributes to their fluency Richards Renandya, 2002. Hymes proposes to use “competence” as “the most general term for the capabilities of a person”. It is dependent on “tacit knowledge” and “ability for use” and the inclusion of ability for use as part of competence allows in not only 19 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI cognitive factors, but also noncognitive factors such as motivation. By “performance” is meant actual use and actual events. So, communicative competence is what enables a person to perform appropriately in speech events Brown et al. 1996. It includes not only grammatical competence, which allows a person to judge whether and to what degree something is formally possible, but also the competence to judge feasibility, appropriateness, and “whether and to what degree something is in fact done. 4 Sociocultural sociolinguistic Competence Knowledge of language alone does not adequately prepare learners for effective and appropriate use of the target language Shumin in Richards Renandya, 2002. Learners must have competence which involves knowing what is expected socially and culturally by users of the target language; that is, learners must acquire the rules and norms governing the appropriate timing and realization of speech acts. Understanding the sociolinguistic side of language helps learners know what comments are appropriate, how to ask questions during interaction, and how to respond nonverbally according to the purpose of the talk. Also, it helps learners know the social context in which communication takes place, i.e. the roles relationships, the shared information of the participants and the communicative purpose for their interaction Canale Swain in Richards Rodgers, 2001. 5 Strategic Competence Strategic competence is the way learners manipulate language in order to meet communicative goals Shumin in Richards Renandya, 2002. It is the ability to compensate for imperfect knowledge of linguistic, sociolinguistic, and 20 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI discourse rules. With reference to speaking, strategic competence refers to the ability to know when and how to take the floor, how to keep a conversation going, how to terminate the conversation, and how to clear up communication breakdown as well as comprehension problems. Communication strategies occur when the speaker is not able to communicate his original communicative goal in the way he planned to, and so is forced to reduce the goal or to locate alternative means to express it. Communication strategies, then, are the result of an initial failure to implement a production plan Ellis, 1990. Where as Savignon Celce-Murcia, 2001 adds that strategic competence is the coping strategies that are used in unfamiliar contexts. The constraints that often impeded communication are due to imperfect knowledge of rules or limiting factors in their application such as fatigue or distraction. Canale and Swain identify ‘strategic competence’, defined as ‘how to cope in an authentic communicative situation and how to keep the communicative channel open’, as an integral part of the language user’s overall communicative competence Ellis, 1990. Communication strategies can be defined as follows: Communication strategies are psycholinguistic plans which exist as part of the language user’s communicative competence. They are potentially conscious and serve as substitutes for production plans which the learner is unable to implement Ellis, 1990 Further, the effects of different variables on the use of communication strategies are upon the proficiency level, the problem-source, the personality, and the learning situation 21 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

c. Communicative Competences in Adult Learning 1 Adult Learning Characteristics

Although many of the “rules” for teaching children can apply in some ways to teaching adults, the latter age group poses some different, special considerations for the classroom teacher Brown, 2001. Adults have superior cognitive abilities that can render them more successful in certain classroom endeavors. Their need for sensory input can rely a little more on their imaginations. Their level of shyness can be equal to or greater than that of children, but adults usually have acquired a self- confidence not found in children. And, because adults’ cognitive abilities, they can at least occasionally deal with language that isn’t embedded in a” here and now” context Brown, 2001. Adults differ from “typical” or “traditional” K-12 students in that they bring a great deal of life experience and cognitive maturity to the classroom Hilles and Sutton in Celce-Murcia, 2001. Adult students have a maturity and an understanding of priorities that many younger students do not. According to them, a prime characteristic of adultness is the need and capacity to be self directing. In other words, adults will, to some extent, “direct” their own learning agendas. If the learning environment does not to some degree match cultural expectations and perceived needs, the self- direction may take the form of challenging the teacher or syllabus in class, of filtering out what they perceive as nonessential, of simply leaving the class and seeking some other way of learning, or of abandoning the enterprise altogether. 22 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI In addition to being mature and self- directed, adult learners are often, of necessity, more focused. McIntire 1988 points out that “because time is such valuable commodity, participating in educational program is often personal sacrifice. Typically, adults can devote only limited time to their educational endeavors, which often translates into their being dedicated students who take learning seriously”. Another characteristic that seems to set apart adult learners, according to Hilles and Sutton in Celce-Murcia, 2001 is the enormous variability that they display in their goals and reasons for tackling a second language. Adults have numerous reasons for studying a second or foreign language L2, and this variety of reasons presents its own challenges to the teacher. Adult learners are most often voluntary learners. Adult learners are in school because they want to be, a desire which is almost inconvenient and often interrupted by family and job responsibilities and commitments Hilles and Sutton in Celce- Murcia, 2001. As a result, adult learners tend to have little patience with classes which they perceive are not furthering their own educational agendas. 2 Adult Learning Styles Learning styles refer to an individual’s natural habitual, and preferred ways of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills Christison in Nunan, 2003. The main application of style to language learning has been through the concept of analytic and holistic Skehan, 1998. In the field of language learning 23 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI , the analytic style could manifest itself by an ability to analyze the linguistic material one is exposed to, identify its components, and then, explore relationships between these components. Separating the essential from the inessential could involve an ability to focus on that data which would be most helpful at whatever level of interlanguage development one has reached, and to promote learning and development with maximum efficiency. According to Skehan 1998, it is also possible to relate the analytic style of learning to an input- processing dimension. In the case of auditory material, the learner has to extract what is important from the stream of incoming sound. This sound will contain a great deal of irrelevant information, and it will be advantageous to devote attention to features which help meaning to be recovered. In this respect, the analytic style would relate to the attentional capacities described earlier, with analytic individuals having greater capacity to channel attention selectively and notice important aspects of language. They may then be more able to reflect upon the ways in which they have exploited their attentional system. The holistic people, in contrast, are likely to be less analytic, to perceive situation as wholes, rather than being analyzable into components, and more likely to depend on external frames of reference for making judgment rely on other people’s opinions Skehan, 1998. To the extent that language development is aided by high- quality interaction, such people are more likely to be naturally drawn through their personal orientation and their comfort in interaction situations to maximize encounters in which they are likely to receive good quality, relevant input, and have opportunities to use language to express meanings. As a result, their interlanguage systems should be stretched by the 24 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI demands to communicate. This raises the possibility that such greater exposure could overcome the problem of a lack of an analytic orientation Skehan, 1998. Learning styles in Jordan’s opinion 1997 concerns with the particular approach by which a student tries to learn. Major influences which condition or shape the way learners think and study are: the educational system, the socio- cultural background and personality variables. Oxford Richards Renandya, 2002 has identified language learning style as another key determiner of second language strategy choice. She considers that when the students are allowed to learn in their favorite way, unpressured by learning environment or other factors, students often use strategies that directly reflect their preferred learning. According to her, students with an analytic learning style prefer strategies such as contrastive analysis, rule learning, and dissecting words and phrases, where as students with a global style use strategies that help them find the big picture i.e. guessing, scanning, predicting and assist them in conversing without knowing all the words i.e. paraphrasing, gesturing. Visually oriented students use strategies such as listing, word grouping, and so on, whereas those with an auditory preference like work with tapes and practice aloud. Students whose style includes tolerance for ambiguity use significantly different learning strategies in some instances from those used by students who are intolerant of ambiguity. Table 2.1 . Learning style taxonomy for the L2 classroom. Learning Style Taxonomy for the Adult L2 Classroom Type 1: Cognitive Styles Type 2: Sensory Styles Type 3: Personality Styles Field Dependent – learns best when information is presented in context. They Perceptual : Visual – learns best when there is visual Tolerance of Ambiguity : refers to how comfortable a learner is with 25 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI are often more fluent language learners. Field independent – learns most effectively step-by-step and with sequential instruction. They are often more accurate language learners. reinforcement such as charts, pictures, graphs, etc. Auditory – learns more effectively by listening to information Tactile – learns more effectively when there is an opportunity to use manipulative resources. Kinesthetic – learns more effectively when there is movement associated with learning uncertainty; some learners do well in situations where there are several possible answers; others prefer one correct answer Analytic – works more effectively alone and at hisher own pace. Global – works more effectively in groups Environmental : Physical – sensitive to learning environment, such as light, temperature, furniture Sociological – sensitive to relationships within the learning environment Right and Left Hemisphere Dominance Left-brain dominant learners tend to be more visual, analytical, reflective, and self- reliant Right-brain dominant learners tend to be more auditory, global, impulsive, and interactive Reflective – learns more effectively when they have time to consider new information before responding Impulsive – learns more effectively when they can respond to new information immediately; as language learners, they are risk takers. The above table clarifies the learning styles of adults Christison in Nunan, 2003 provides in learning style taxonomy for the second language classroom. 3 Adult Learning Strategies Learning strategies refer to characteristics we want to stimulate in students to enable them to become more proficient language learners Christison in Nunan, 2003. 26 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Skehan mentions three useful types of strategies. Social- affective strategies concern how learners engage in social interactions more effectively, use their fellow learners and interlocutors to help them solve problems, deal with affective problems; give themselves encouragement; and deal with anxiety. Cognitive strategies are concerned with the direct activities that are engaged in to promote learning. They would include such things as memorization techniques, inferencing, and so on. They represent what learners actually do to process the material that needs to be learned, and would correspond to direct learning strategies. Finally, Skehan elaborates the metacognitive learning strategies, such as goal setting, planning, monitoring, evaluating, channeling attention, and so on. Metacognitive strategies are broader in application that the more direct repertoire of cognitive strategies, and may subsume them. Above all, they are concerned with two things, reflection and flexibility. Reflection represents the learner developing some degree of self- awareness in learning, and shows how a given learner may appreciate his or her strengths and weaknesses. Flexibility arising from effective metacognitive strategy use organizes and gives purpose to the way cognitive and social- affective strategies are used, and increases the likelihood of appropriateness of strategy choice. Skehan continues that rather then engage in activity for its own sake, the good learner is more able, through metacognitive awareness, to select strategies appropriate to a particular problem. Table 2.2. Learning strategies for Adult L2 Adult learners Learning strategy Definition of strategy Metacognitive strategies Planning Previewing main ideas Making plans to accomplish a task Playing attention to key information Seeking out and arranging for conditions to promote successful learning 27 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Monitoring Self-checking ones comprehension Evaluating Developing the ability to determine how well one has accomplished the task Cognitive strategies Summarizing Saying or writing the main ideas Induction Figuring out the rules from samples of language Imagery Being able to visualize a picture and use it to learn new information Auditory representation Mentally replaying a word, phrase, or piece of information Making inferences Using information in the text to guess the meaning Using resources Developing the ability to use reference materials Grouping Classifying words, terminology, quantities, or concepts Note-taking Writing down key words and concepts in verbal, graphic, or numerical form Elaboration of prior knowledge Relating new to known information and making personal associations SocialAffective strategies Cooperating Learning how to work with colleague – completing a task, pooling information, solving a problem, and obtaining feedback Clarifying Learning how to ask questions to get additional explanation or verification from the teacher or someone else who might know the answer Self-talk Reducing anxiety by talking positively to oneself Christison as she adopts from Chamot and O’Melly 1994 provides general learning strategies for second language learners as the table above shows.

3. English For Specific Purposes ESP

This section elaborates the development of ESP, ESP categories and English for Health Officials.

a. The Development of ESP

The concept of English for a special purpose arose in the early 1960s partly in response to the recognized need for improved communication between 28 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI the developed and the developing countries of the world Hutchinson Waters, 1987. The first focus of ESP was on the lexis. The idea was that normal ESL materials would be used but that subject-specific lexical items would be substituted for more general terms . this was originally labeled “register” for want of a better term, and it led to a useful analysis of several sub-branches of science and technology. For science, the grammatical differences from “general English” were fewer than imagined, but what was clear was that simple lexical substitution would be insufficient Master, 1998. With the shift away from linguistics at the sentence level and an increasing focus on discourse materials, ESP started to look at “doing science” rather that just describing it. In other words, the view of language as communication opened the way for a more global approach to scientific language, including investigation of the reasoning and conceptual processes scientists applied. The idea that the described rhetorical and discourse structures might be true across languages led to a new concept: that second language learners would learn English by practicing scientific tasks that were already familiar to them in their native languages. The focus on the needs of the learner as opposed to the inculcation of linguistic facts led to a general shift away from teacher-centeredness to learner- centeredness. ESP practitioners were encouraged to find and use realistic materials not invented ones in trying to best meet the needs of their students Hutchinson Waters, 1987. 29 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Johns Machado in Celce-Murcia, 2001 specify that ESP is a movement based on the proposition that all language teaching should be tailored to the specific learning an language use needs of identified groups of students. And it is sensitive to the socio cultural context in which these students will be using English

b. ESP Categories

The main interests of the ESP movement can be categorized in a number of ways Johns Machado in Celce-Murcia, 2001. Based on their current importance, some of these categories will be highlighted as follows: English for Occupational Purposes and English for Academic Purposes. The classification of ESP categories is described in the next figure in the following page. English for Specific Purposes English for Academic Purposes English for Occupational Purposes English for Professional Purposes Vocational ESL English for Business and Economics Academics English for Medical Purposes Academics English for the Law Academics English for Science and Technology Academics English for Medical Purposes Chester VESL Pre-employment VESL English for Business Purposes Workplace VESL Occupational Specific VESL Figure 2.2. The classification of ESP categories 30 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Considering the figure, English for Health Officials is categorized under English for Professional Purposes and it is equal with English for Medical Purposes and English for Business Purposes.

c. English for Health Officials

Peter Strevens as quoted by Johns Machado in Celce-Murcia 2001 provides the following overview of ESP and its features. The claims for ESP are that it is focused on the learners needs and wastes no time; it is relevant to the learner; it is successful in imparting learning; and it is more cost-effective than “General English.”. English for Health Officials is an English program which is held for health officials. The main objective of the program is to improve the competence of the health officials in performing and maintaining their international relationship. The program deals with the use of English in public health management area. The suggested material is focused on the needs area of the study. The activities in the program fit to the real action in the field. The learners are asked to practice their English in the situation which is designed as similar as the real situation.

4. Syllabus Design

A syllabus is defined as a document which says what will be learned. The main function of syllabus is to break down the mass knowledge to be learnt into manageable units Hutchinson Waters, 1987; Richards, 2001; Feez, 2001. There are numbers of syllabuses approaches, such content or product, skills, and method or process see Nunan, 1998; Jordan, 1997; Richards Rodgers, 2001. 31 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Richards 2001 underlines that in choosing a particular syllabus framework of a course, planners are usually influenced by the factors of 1 knowledge and belief about the subject area, 2 research and theory, 3 common practice, and 4 trends. There are a number of syllabus designs, those are among others: grammatical syllabus, notional – functional syllabus, content – based syllabus, task- based syllabus and situational syllabus. Grammatical syllabus Nunan 2001 describes that the point of departure for designing a grammatical syllabus is to select and sequence lists of grammatical items and then integrate these with lists of vocabulary items. Lists of phonological items have sometimes been thrown in for good measure. The assumption under lying this syllabus is that language consists of a finite set of rules which can be combined in various ways to make meaning. The task for the language learner is to master each rule in the order presented by the syllabus before moving on to the next. Notional- functional syllabus Nunan 2001 also concerns with notional- functional syllabus in which he considers notions as the general conceptual meanings such as time, cause and duration, while functions are the communicative purposes that are achieved through language such as apologizing, advising, and expressing preferences. Content- based syllabus Content- based syllabus presents language indirectly via the content of other subjects Nunan, 2001. Learners acquire the target language in the course 32 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI of doing other things. The approach draws strongly on the experiential view of learning. That is, that active engagement in communicating in the language is the most effective means of acquiring it. Task- based syllabus Instead of beginning the design process with lists of grammatical, functional-notional, and other time, the designer of this syllabus type conducts needs analysis which yields a list of the communicative tasks that the learners for whom the syllabus is intended will need to carry out Nunan, 2001. Situational syllabus Situational syllabus is centered around context or situation in which the learner is likely to engage in. Such syllabus lists the situations or contexts in which the language will be used, and analyses the language needed for those situations Jordan, 1997.

a. Competence- based Syllabus Design

The features of Competence – based syllabus design according to Nunan in Celce-Murcia 2001 are that it is: ƒ focusing on what learners should be able to do at the end of course of instruction ƒ is concerned with the attainment of specified standards ƒ criterion – rather than norm-referenced Pelayanan Profesional Kurikulum, 2004, Depdiknas, 2003 adds that the design consists of : 1 competency standards; 2 basic competency; 3 indicators; 4 teaching materials; 5 learning experience; 6 time allocation; 7 resource and media; and 8 assessment. Further, Finney Richards Renandya, 33 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 2002 specifies that the design covers the content and the ordering of what to be taught . Nunan Celce-Murcia, 2001 completes the design with the selection, sequencing, and justification of the content of the curriculum. Content selection refers to selecting linguistic features such items of grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary as well as experiential content such as topics and themes.

b. Needs Analysis

Needs analysis is the starting point for devising syllables, courses, materials and the kind of teaching and learning that takes place Jordan, 1997. Under the umbrella of needs analysis, other approaches have been incorporated. These include: target-situation analysis, present-situation analysis, deficiency analysis, strategy analysis, means analysis, and language audit. Implicit in needs analysis is the requirement for fact-finding or the collection of data. The starting point is to pose some fundamental questions which can help us to see the appropriate type of analysis and the data needed. The fundamental questions are as follows: - Why is the analysis being taken? The question is to determine the type of syllabus and content, materials, teaching learning; for placement on an appropriate course; etc - Whose needs are to analyzed? the student’s; the sponsor’s – institution or country; the specialist department, etc - Who performs the analysis? Who decides what the language needs are? sponsor; teacher; student; research consultant; etc 34 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI - What is to be analyzed? target situation; present situation; deficiencies; strategies; means; constraints; necessities; lacks; wants; etc - How is the analysis to be conducted? tests; questionnaires; interviews; documentation; ect - When is the analysis to be undertaken? before the course tuition; at the start of the course; during the course; at the end of the course; etc - Where is the course to be held? in the target country, e.g. UK; in the student’s own country; in a third country; etc Jordan 1997: 22- 23. 1 Approaches to Needs Analysis a Target- situation Analysis The best known framework for target-situation analysis is the rigorous model devised by Munby 1978. Munby’s approach focuses on the students’ needs at the end of a language course, and target-level performance. Munby is concerned with communicative syllabus design, and his procedures are very detailed. Target-situation analysis obtains some benefits as follows: o It is seen as the logical starting point for the development of a language program which is responsive to the learner and learning needs Finney in Richards Renandya, 2002 o It guides the selection process Nunan in Celce-Murcia, 2001 o It provides the syllabus designer with a basis both for content specification and for the setting of goals and objectives Nunan in Celce- Murcia, 2001 The methods of assessing learner needs in this analysis are as follows: 35 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Questionnaires and surveys ; interviews of experts ,students, and stakeholders; observation; job-shadowing, and analysis; multiple intelligence and learning style surveys of the learners; modes of working; spoken or written reflection by the learner-or their supervisors - before, during, or the instruction Nunan in Celce-Murcia 2001. b Present-situation analysis Jordan 1997 proposes a present- situation analysis which ascertains the learners’ state of language development at the beginning of the language course. The sources of information are: the learners themselves, the teaching establishment, and the “user institution”, e.g. place of work, sponsoring body, etc. The methods of collection of data are surveys, questionnaires and interviews. Information is sought on levels of ability resources and views on language teaching learning. Essentially, the learner is at the centre of the system, which includes the surrounding society and culture. c Deficiency analysis Hutchinson and Waters 1987 sub- divide target needs into ‘necessities’, ‘lacks’ and ‘wants’. By ‘necessities’ they mean what the learner has to know in order to function effectively in the target situation this would involve obtaining information about the situations in which the language will be used, e.g. lectures, seminars, etc., and the discourse components and linguistic features commonly used in them, e.g. functions, structures, vocabulary, etc. ‘Lacks’ represent the gap between the target proficiency and what the learner knows already. The necessities that the learner lacks can form the basis of the language syllabus: this is referred to as deficiency analysis Jordan, 1997. 36 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI d Strategy analysis Jordan 1997 describes that in the 1980s the focus of needs analysis turned more towards the methodology employed to implement language programs. According to him this involved not only methods of teaching, but also methods of learning. In other words, observing the preferred learning styles and strategies of learners. Related areas in a strategy analysis are preferences in group size, correction procedures and methods of assessment. e Means analysis An important strand in the development of needs analysis is the attempt to adapt language courses to local situation Jordan, 1997. In other words, ‘means analysis’ is to accommodate what are frequently seen to be ‘constraints’, e.g. cultural attitudes, resources, materials, equipment, methods; Also, it involves a study of the local situation, i.e. the teachers, teaching methods, students, facilities, etc. to see how a language course may be implemented. ‘Means analysis’ starts from a positive premise, i.e. what might be achieved with certain, given factors. It allows sensitivity to situations in any country and discourages the imposition of alien models of teaching, methodology, learning, etc.. The purpose of the analysis is to prevent alienation caused by imported teaching methods that may be culturally inappropriate Jordan, 1997. f Language Audit Language audit are large scale exercises in defining language needs carried out for companies, regions or countries Jordan, 1997. They provide data and may propose training or educational policies to be implemented over a period of time. 37 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 2 Interview and Questionnaire a Interview Kvale 1996 regards an interview as an interchange of views between two or more people on a topic of mutual interest, sees the centrality of human interaction for knowledge production, and emphasizes the social situatedness of research data. Knowledge itself should be as constructed between participants, therefore, the interview is not exclusively either subjective or objective, it is intersubjective. Interviews enable participants to discuss their interpretations of the world in which they live, and to express how they regard situations from their own point of view. Hence, the interview is not simply concerned with collecting data about life: it is part of life itself, its human embeddedness is inescapable. Cohen et al. 2000 suggests the purposes of the interview as to evaluate or assess a person in some respect, to select or promote an employee, to effect therapeutic change, as in the psychiatric interview, to test or develop hypotheses, to gather data, as in surveys or experimental situations, to sample respondents’ opinions, as in doorstep interview. Further, Cohen et al. 2000 lays out the strengths and weaknesses of different types of interview. Table. 2.3. Strengths and weaknesses of different interview types Cohen et al., 2000. Type of Interview Characteristics Strengths Weaknesses 1 Informal conversational interview Questions emerge from the immediate context and are asked in the natural course of things; there is no predetermination of question topics or wording. Increases the salience and relevance of questions; interviews are built on and emerge from observation; the interview can be matched to individuals and circumstances. Different information collected from different people with different questions. Less systematic and comprehensive if certain questions don’t arise “naturally”. Data 38 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI organization and analysis can be quite difficult. 2 Interview guide approach Topics and issues to be covered are specified in advance, in outline form; interviewer decides sequence and working of questions in the course of the interview. The outline increases the comprehensiveness of the data and makes data collection somewhat systematic for each respondent. Logical gaps in data can be anticipated and closed. Interviews remain fairly conversational and situational. Important and salient topics may be inadvertently omitted. Interviewer flexibility in sequencing and wording questions can result in substantially different responses, thus reducing the comparability of responses. 3 Standardized open-ended interviews The exact wording and sequence of questions are determined in advance. All interviews are asked the same basic questions in the same order. Respondents answer the same questions, thus increasing comparability of responses; data are complete for each person on the topics addressed in the interview. Reduces interviewer effects and bias when several interviewers are used. Permits decision-makers to see and review the instrumentation used in the evaluation. Facilitates organization and analysis of the data. Little flexibility in relating the interview to particular individuals and circumstances; standardized wording of questions may constrain and limit naturalness and relevance of questions and answers. 4 Closed quantitative interviews Questions and response categories are determined in advance. Responses are fixed; respondent chooses from among these fixed responses Data analysis is simple; responses can be directly compared and easily aggregated; many short questions can be asked in a short time. Respondents must fit their experiences and feelings into the researcher’s categories; may be perceived as impersonal, irrelevant, and mechanistic. Can distort what respondents really mean or experienced by so 39 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI completely limiting their response choices. Kvale 1996 sets out seven stages of an interview investigation: o Thematizing. Formulate the purpose of an investigation and describe the concept of the topic to be investigated before the interviews start. The why and what of the investigation should be clarified before the question of how – method – is posed. o Designing. Plan the design of the study, taking into account consideration all stages of the investigation, before the interviewing starts. o Interviewing. Conduct the interviews based on an interview guide and with a reflective approach to the knowledge sought and the interpersonal relation of the interview situation o Transcribing. Prepare the interview material for analysis, which commonly includes a transcription from oral speech to written text. o Analysing. Decide, on the basis of the purpose and topic of the investigation, and on the nature of the interview material, which methods of analysis are appropriate for the interviews o Verifying. Ascertain the generalizability, reliability, and validity of the interview findings. o Reporting. Communicate the findings of the study and the methods applied in a form that lives up to scientific criteria, takes the ethical aspects of the investigation into consideration, and that results in a reliable product. 40 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI b Questionnaire Johns and Price-Machado in Celce-Murcia 2001 state that questionnaire can be given to the students themselves, their employers or supervisors, or the audiences to whom they will be writing or speaking. Cohen further presents that concerning operationalizing a questionnaire, the process is to take a general purpose or set of purpose and turn these into concrete, researchable fields about which actual data can be gathered. A questionnaire’s general purposes must be clarified and then translated into a specific, concrete aim or set of aims. Then, the planning involves the identification and itemizing of subsidiary topics that relate to its central purpose. Next, it continues with the identification and itemization of subsidiary topics and involves formulating specific information requirements relating to each of these issues.

c. Syllabus Development

The process of syllabus development in language teaching involve assessing the needs of learners in a language program, developing goals and objectives, planning a syllabus, selecting teaching approaches and materials, and deciding on assessment procedures and criteria Richards Renandya, 2002. Syllabus is curriculum in its narrowest sense. Syllabus specifies the content and the ordering of what is to be taught. The purposes of the program are to transmit knowledge of the language system to the learners and to ensure that they master the grammar rules and vocabulary of the language; the content or the syllabus is a selection and sequencing of individual grammar points and lexis; 41 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI the teaching procedures and learning experiences will include drilling of grammatically correct sentences, explanations of theory and memorization of lists of vocabulary; and assessment is based on the learner’s ability to produce grammatically accurate language. 42 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

B. Theoretical Framework

The health officials communicate and maintain their international relation and communication though some professional functions performed in English. The professional functions successfully performed in English contribute to the attainment of their job description in international relationship and communication. Nevertheless, weaknesses in performing such international relation and communication impede the successful attainment of the health officials’ job description. As far as the research concerns, the weaknesses are mostly related with those of the language English. Hence, the necessity to establish a language course specific to the needs of the health officials is quite urgent. In relation to successfully perform the professional functions in English, the health officials need to improve their communicative competence in English by joining a language course as mentioned above. Following Hymes Brown et al., 1996 communicative competence labels the ability to produce situationally and socially acceptable utterances in a particular language, thus English. This communicative competence, in Celce-Murcia’s view Celce-Murcia et al., 1995 consists of: Discourse competence, Actional competence, Linguistic competence, Sociocultural sociolinguistic competence and Strategic competence. These elements of communicative competence need to be improved so that the health officials are able to successfully perform their professional functions in order to maintain their international relationship and communication. 43 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI The professional functions performed in English and the communicative competence will be integrated in a syllabus design which is also specific to the learners’ the health officials’ needs. The features of such syllabus design are: first, focusing on what learners should be able to do at the end of course of instruction; second, it is concerned with the attainment of specific standards; theird, it is criterion- rather than norm- referenced. Pelayanan Profesional Kurikulum, 2004, Depdiknas, 2003 adds that the design consists of : 1 competency standards; 2 basic competency; 3 indicators; 4 teaching materials; 5 learning experience; 6 time allocation; 7 resource and media; and 8 assessment. Further, Finney Richards Renandya, 2002 specifies that the design covers the content and the ordering of what to be taught . Prior to designing the syllabus, a need analysis which also addresses the professional functions and the communicative competence will be conducted. Under the need analysis, the research will applies target- situation analysis for it focuses on the learners’ needs at the end of a language course and target level performance. Hutchinson and Waters 1987 elaborate the framework of such target situation analysis. The framework includes: why is the language need?for study; for work; for training; for combination of these; or for some other purpose, e.g. status, examination, promotion; how will the language be used? medium: speaking, writing, reading, etc; channel: e.g. telephone, face to face; types of text or discourse: e.g. academic texts, lectures, informal conversations, technical manuals, catalogues; what will the content areas be? subjects: e.g. medicine, biology, architecture, shipping, commerce, engineering; level: e.g. technician, craftsman, postgraduate, secondary school; who will the learner use 44 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI the language with? native speakers or non- native? level of knowledge or receiver: e.g. expert, layman, student; relationship: e.g. colleague, teacher, customer, superior, subordinate; where will the language be used? physical setting: e.g. office, lecture theatre, hotel, workshop, library; human context: e.g. alone, meetings, demonstrations, on telephone; linguistic context: e.g. in own country, abroad; when will the language be used? concurrently with the ESP course or subsequently; frequently, seldom, in small amounts, in large chunks. In addition to the target situation analysis framework, they provide framework for analyzing learning needs. The framework includes: why are the learners taking the course? compulsory or optional; apparent need or not; are status, money, promotion involved?; what do learners think they will achieve?; what is their attitude towards the ESP course? Do they want to improve their English or do they resent the time they have to spend on it?; how do the learners learn? what is their learning background? what is their concept of teaching and learning? what methodology will appeal to them? what sort of techniques are likely to borealienate them?; what resources are available? number and professional competence of teachers; attitude of teachers to ESP; teacher’s knowledge of and attitude to the subject contents; materials; aids; opportunities for out-of-class activities; who are the learners? agesexnationality; what do they know already about English? what subject knowledge do they have? what are their interests? what is their socio-cultural background? what teaching styles are they used to? what is their attitude to English or to the cultures of the English speaking world?; where will the ESP course take place? are the surroundings pleasant, dull, noisy, cold, etc?; when will the ESP course take place? time of 45 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI day; every day once a week; full-time part time; concurrent with need or pre- need. The result of the needs analysis serves as the basis of the syllabus design. The process of syllabus development in language teaching involve assessing the needs of learners in a language program, developing goals and objectives, planning a syllabus, selecting teaching approaches and materials, and deciding on assessment procedures and criteria Richards Renandya, 2002. 46 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY