The professional functions and communicative competence in english health officials.

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ABSTRACT

Theresia Laksmi Widyarini. (2008). Professional Functions and Communicative Competence in English for Health Officials. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

The competence-based approach has been the current approach of education in Indonesia since 2003. This approach has been referred to develop learners’ competences in performing the language successfully. Therefore, supplying the underlying competences helps learners in engaging successfully in a class and facilitates them in performing their international relation in their field of professions. Furthermore, the development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is also contributed by the development in educational theories. The development emphasizes the central importance of learners and their attitudes to learning. Learners have been considered to have different needs and interest which would have an important influence on their motivation to learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learning. This provides support to the development of courses which is relevant to learners’ needs and interest.

There were three problems formulated in the research. The first problem investigated the professional functions mostly performed in English by the health officials in terms of their international relation. The second problem concerned with the most required communicative competences in order to perform those professional functions successfully. And the third problem which would become the technological by-product of this research aimed at designing a syllabus by integrating the professional functions mostly performed in English and the most required communicative competences of the language.

The research investigated that the health officials performed a number of professional functions mostly performed in English and they required some communicative competences in order to perform the professional functions successfully. In investigating the professional functions mostly performed in English and the required communicative competence, the researcher conducted a need analysis. The professional functions the health officials performed in English mostly were guest reception, international negotiation, program/activity reporting, international correspondence, seminar participation, program proposal, fund raising, official travel, information seeking, interpreting, fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking and translating,

The communicative competence mostly required by the health officials to perform their professional functions successfully concerned with the proper use of the discourse, the functions of language, the grammar, the social and contextual factors, and the strategy. The result of the professional function identification and the required communicative competence to perform the functions successfully served as the bases of designing the syllabus. The type of syllabus chosen was competence-based which were equipped with competence standards and basic competence along with the indicators.

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ABSTRAK

Theresia Laksmi Widyarini. (2008). Professional Functions and Communicative Competence in English for Health Officials. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

Pendekatan berbasis kompetensi merupakan pendekatan dalam pendidikan yang telah dilaksananakan di Indonesia sejak tahun 2003. Pendekatan ini ditujukan untuk meningkatkan kompetensi pembelajar dalam menggunakan bahasa dengan baik. Oleh karenanya, memberikan landasan kompetensi dapat membantu pembelajar dalam berinteraksi di kelas dan membantu mereka dalam melaksanakan hubungan internasional dalam bidang pekerjaan mereka. Disamping itu, perkembangan pembelajaran English for Specific Purposes (ESP) juga didukung oleh perkembangan teori-teori pendidikan. Perkembangan tersebut menekankan pada kepentingan pokok dari pembelajar dan perilaku mereka terhadap pembelajaran. Pembelajar dinilai memiliki kebutuhan dan ketertarikan yang akan mempengaruhi motivasi dalam pembelajaran dan pada keberhasilan pembelajaran mereka. Hal tersebut memberikan dukungan pada perkembangan pembelajaran yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan ketertarikan pembelajar.

Penelitian ini merumuskan tiga masalah penelitian. Masalah pertama mengenai fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan yang paling sering dilakukan oleh staf kesehatan dengan menggunakan B. Inggris dalam hubungan internasional mereka. Masalah kedua mengenai kompetensi berkomunikasi yang diperlukan untuk melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan tersebut. Masalah yang ketiga mengenai penyususunan rancangan silabus yang memadukan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan dan kemampuan berkomunikasi tersebut dimana rancangan silabus ini merupakan technological by-product dari penelitian ini.

Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa staf kesehatan melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan yang paling sering dilakukan dalam B. Inggris dan mereka memerlukan kompetensi berkomunikasi agar dapat melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan tersebut dengan baik. Penelitian ini melaksanakan suatu analisa kebutuhan dengan menggunakan wawancara dan angket. Fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan yang paling sering dilaksanakan dalam B. Inggris adalah: menerima tamu, negosiasi dengan kolega internasional, pelaporan program/kegiatan, surat menyurat dengan kolega internasional, seminar, pengusulan program/kegiatan, penggalangan dana, perjalanan dinas, pencarian informasi, interpreting, fellowship/ short course/ studi banding/ benchmarking dan translating,

Kompetensi berkomunikasi yang diperlukan dalam melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan itu adalah kompetensi wacana, kompetensi tindak bahasa, kompetensi kebahasaan, kompetensi sosiokultural, dan kompetensi strategi

Kemudian, hasil dari pengidentifikasian fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan dan kompetensi komunikatif digunakan sebagai dasar penysusunan silabus. Jenis silabus yang digunakan adalah silabus berbasis kompetensi yang meliputi kompetensi standar, kompetensi dasar dan indikator.

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THE PROFESSIONAL FUNCTIONS AND

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN

ENGLISH FOR HEALTH OFFICIALS

A Thesis

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to obtain the Magister Humaniora (M. Hum) Degree in English Language Studies

By

Theresia Laksmi Widyarini

Student Number: 046332013

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM (S2) IN

ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else’s ideas, or phrases, or sentences without a proper reference.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am taking a great pleasure of expressing my deepest gratitude by dedicating this page to those who have been giving me support of any kind.

First of all, I would like to thank Father Who Arts in Heaven, for being the Best Friend, ever; The gratitude also goes to,

1. Dr. FX. Mukarto, M.S., my supervisor, for having spared his unbelievably busy time for consultation and guidance;

2. dr. Bondan Agus S, SE, MA., the Chairman of Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office, and his distinguished staff: Dra Siti Munawaroh, Apt. M.Kes, Drg Yuli Kusumastuti, M.Kes, late dr Nanis Budiningsih, M.Kes, dr RA. Arida Utami, M.Kes, and Dra Dyah Ayu P, Apt, M.Kes, for being my research partners;

3. dr. Choirul Anwar, M.Kes., the Chairman of Yogyakarta Municipal Health Office, and his outstanding staff: Taslim Sudiyanto, SKM., Darra Irawati, SE., and Agung Setiawan, SIP, for having provided me with valuable inputs in preparing and finalizing this research;

4. Prof. dr. Laksono Trisnantoro, MSc., Ph.D., the Director of the Center for Health Service Management, Medical Faculty, UGM and the secretaries: Nenggih Wahyuni, SIP., and Sealvy Kristianingsih, A.Md, , for having facilitated me so far; 5. Drs. RY. Suharyo and S. Suratmi, A.Ma, my dearest parents, I can never thank you

enough for the endless love, prayers and faith;

6. A. Edy Purnomo, SE., and Y. Alvendi Agung B, my dearest husband and my lovely son, thanks for always being there for me;

7. V. Woro Hapsari, SE, Akt., and B. Ida Tri Ambarwati, A.Md, my dearest sisters; Y.P. Marbun, A.P., and Ali Wasono, my dearest brothers-in-law; also Yonatan Marbun and Octavia Widya, my lovely nephew and niece, thanks for the love, care and prayers;

8. Pak Singgih, Bu Rin, Pak Setyo, Bu Siti, Ansel, mbak Rus, Dian, Linda, Listy, Shierly, Dini and Dona, my wonderful friends of Batch 2004; Guys, thanks for cheering me up.

Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to those who cannot be stated here by name. May God bless them all.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ………..i

APPROVAL PAGE ………...………ii

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ………...………….. iv

LEMBAR PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ……… v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………...vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS………...vii

LISTS OF FIGURES & TABLES………... ix

ABSTRACT………... x

ABSTRAK ………. xi

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ……….. 1

A. Background ……… 1

B. Problem Identification ………4

C. Problem Limitation ……….5

D. Problem Formulation ………..6

E. Research Objectives ……….. 7

F. Research Benefits ……….. 7

G. Operational Definition ……….. .8

CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL REVIEW & FRAMEWORK ……….. 11

A. Theoretical Review ………...12

1. Professional Functions ……….12

2. Communicative Competences ………...14

a. Development of Communicative Competence...………..14

b. Elements of Communicative Competences ……….17

1) Discourse Competence ...………...18

2) Actional Competence ..………..18

3) Linguistic Competence ...………...19

4) Sociocultural/ Sociolinguistic Competence ……….. 20

5) Strategic Competence ……… 20

c. Communicative Competences in Adult Learning …………....22

1) Adult Learning Characteristics………...22

2) Adult Learning Style ………..23

3) Adult Learning Strategies ……….. 26

3. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) ……….. 28

a. Development of ESP…... ………. 28

b. ESP Categories ………. 30

c. English for Health Officials………31

4. Syllabus Design ……….. 31

a. Competence- based Syllabus Design ……….. 33

b. Needs Analysis ………34

1) Approaches to Needs Analysis..………. 35

2) Interview and Questionnaire..………. 38

c. Syllabus Development ………..….. 41

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CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY ………..47

A. Methods ………47

B. Nature of Data ………... ………..48

C. Data Setting and Source…...……….………49

D. Data Gathering Instrument ……….. ………... 49

1. Interview……….. ….………...……… .50

2. Questionnaire... ………...…….………..51

E. Data Collection ………... 54

F. Data Analysis ………54

G. Data Triangulation………..54

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULT …. …………... ………. 56

A. Result of Professional Function Identification ……… ………...57

B. Result of Communicative Competence Identification ……….….77

C. Result of Syllabus Development ………. 90

1. Assessing Learners’ Needs ………91

2. Developing Goals and Objectives ………..92

3. Deciding Syllabus Type ……….92

4. Specifying Contents ………...……93

5. Planning Syllabus ………..…………95

6. Selecting teaching Approaches and Materials ……….105

7. Assessment procedures and Criteria ………105

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION A. Conclusion ………..106

B. Implication ………..108

C. Recommendation ………109

BIBLIOGRAPHY ………..111

APPENDICES ………112

Appendix 1. Interview Sheet ……… 113

Appendix 2. Interview Result/Transcription ……… 114

Appendix 3. Questionnaire Sheet ………. 125

Appendix 4. Questionnaire Result ……… 133

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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Communicative Competence Model Figure 2.2. The Classification of ESP Categories

TABLES

Table 2.1. Learning Style Taxonomy for the L2 Classroom Table 2.2. Learning Strategies for L2 Learners

Table 2.3. Strengths and weaknesses of Different Interview Types Table 3.1. Interview Blueprint

Table 3.2. Topics and related Specific Information Table 3.3. List of Questionnaire Questions

Table 4.1. Guest Reception Function Table 4.2. International Negation Function Table 4.3. Program/ Activity Reporting Function Table 4.4. International Correspondence Function Table 4.5. Seminar Presentation Function

Table 4.6. Program Proposal Function Table 4.7. Fund Raising Function Table 4.8. Official Travel Function Table 4.9. Interpreting Function

Table 4.10.Fellowship/Short Course/Comparative Study/Benchmarking Function Table 4.11. Communicative Competence in Guest Reception

Table 4.12. Communicative Competence in International Negation Table 4.13. Communicative Competence in Program/ Activity Reporting Table 4.14. Communicative Competence in International Correspondence Table 4.15. Communicative Competence in Seminar Participation Table 4.16. Communicative Competence in Program Proposal Table 4.17. Communicative Competence in Fund Raising Table 4.18. Communicative Competence in Official Travel Table 4.19. Communicative Competence in Information Seeking Table 4.20. Communicative Competence in Interpreting

Table 4.21. Communicative Competence in Fellowship/Short Course/Comparative Study/Benchmarking Table 4.22. Communicative Competence in Translating Table 4.23. Specifying Contents

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ABSTRACT

Theresia Laksmi Widyarini. (2008). Professional Functions and Communicative Competence in English for Health Officials. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

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ABSTRAK

Theresia Laksmi Widyarini. (2008). Professional Functions and Communicative Competence in English for Health Officials. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter is intended to introduce the research and justify the necessity to conduct it. A brief description of the occupational context where the research is conducted is provided with an emphasis on the needs of learning English. Finally, the chapter is concluded with some definitions of terms

I. BACKGROUND

This research, aims at describing the professional functions performed by the health officials in terms of their international relation as well as the required competences in order to perform those professional functions successfully. And the technological by-product of this research will be in a form of syllabus design which integrates the professional functions and the required communicative competences of the language.

The competence-based approach has been the current approach of education in Indonesia since 2003 (Pelayanan Profesional Kurikulum 2004, 2003). Current curricula of formal schools in Indonesia have been referred to develop learners’ competences in performing the language successfully. Naturally, considering the health officials who are experts in their field of profession, it is strongly argued that the role of an English instructor should not be to teach content but to provide necessary skills to be able to cope with content (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). Therefore, supplying the underlying competences will help learners in engaging successfully in a class and facilitate them in

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performing their international relation in their field of professions (Swales in Master, 1998).

The development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is also contributed by the development in education. The development emphasizes the central importance of learners and their attitudes to learning. Learners have been considered to have different needs and interest which would have an important influence on their motivation to learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learning. This provides support to the development of courses which is relevant to learners’ needs and interest.

Master (1998) and Jordan (1997) have mentioned some courses intended for English Medical Purposes. At least, they proposed English for Aphasics, English for Nursing Professionals, English for Pharmacy Students, English for Physiotherapy. Likewise, this research concerns with health professionals with different medical expertise backgrounds. These health officials (the research participants) do not directly serve patients in hospitals or clinics, but they serve the public in general and they represent government agents who deal with the management of public health. As far as the research concerns, this area has not gained sufficient attention in English for Specific Purposes.

The Indonesian government has undergone major changes since the reform movement in 1998, especially in authority division among government agencies. The authority changes in the government agencies were initiated with the stipulation of decentralization (local autonomy) policy. Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office/ PHO (Dinas Kesehatan Provinsi D.I. Yogyakarta) is one of the Indonesian government agencies dealing with public health sector.

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Decentralization represents the main issue in Indonesian health reform (Trisnantoro, 2005). It also represents the main issue to respond to the economic and political change pressures. The decentralization concept intends to improve the public participation in the decision making, so that they can provide healthcare appropriate with the local needs and aspiration, accommodate social, economic, environmental diversities, as well as improve the distribution of public resource. Besides the decision making, the concept provides more room for the local management and strengthens the government (health sector) accountability towards the society

The international donor agencies take their parts in encouraging better distribution of qualified and effective public healthcare. These agencies offer financial aids in a specific condition that the aids are utilized to improve the healthcare efficiency and quality (Trisnantoro, 2005). A way to improve the healthcare efficiency and quality is through the development of health human resource.

Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office/ PHO is one of government’s agencies in public health services. PHO also has experienced some major organizational changes as well as authority changes and it has been playing important role in the implementation of the decentralization/ autonomy policy in health sector. As a government agency in provincial level, PHO organizes and coordinates most of the health programs, not to mention its official relation with the foreign donors in which PHO also serves as the foreign donor coordinator. Since PHO organizes and coordinates most of the health programs as well as its foreign official relation with the foreign donors, the human resource of PHO is

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demanded to obtain good quality and capability in performing their professional functions especially those related with the international donors.

The May 27 earthquake that struck D.I. Yogyakarta Province and Klaten, Central Java have made the two provinces points of attention. Quite a number of international NGOs have come to the two provinces, especially D.I. Yogyakarta Province, to give aids during the emergency phase as well as the recovery and reconstruction phases. PHO as the government agency in provincial level has been coordinating all the aids and hosting regular coordination meetings. Most of the NGOs members do not speak Indonesian. They are accompanied by their interpreters, but during the meetings at PHO, where they are hosted by PHO staffs, it is PHO’s responsibility to make the meetings as well as communication run smoothly. One main constraint in dealing with those foreigners is then the language. It is quite unpractical both for the foreigners and PHO staffs when they communicate via interpreters. This is not to mention some misunderstanding which often happens since the interpreters do not always know about specific terminologies in health. It would have been a good and smooth communication if PHO staffs obtain good capability in the language. Therefore, a research which investigates the PHO staff’s need to improve their communicative competence in English so that they are able to perform their professional functions with their international colleagues is quite urgent.

B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office consists of several divisions and sub- divisions. As a government agency in provincial level, PHO organizes and

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coordinates most of the health programs. The health programs are not established by the Ministry of Health, RI, but also those established by the province as well as the districts/ municipality. In the official relation with international agencies, PHO also serves as the coordinator and facilitator. Since PHO organizes and coordinates most of the health programs as well as its international official relation with the international agencies, the human resource of PHO is demanded to obtain adequate quality and capability in performing their official activities especially those related with the international agencies.

However, the most common constraint encountered by the health officials in maintaining their international relation is that of the language, especially English. Some of the officials of the international agencies do speak Indonesian, but many others do not. This language constraint impedes the smooth running and well established communication because then many items being communicated are not exchanged well and results in misunderstanding and miscommunication quite often. For that reason, the staffs need to improve their communication ability in English so that they are able to perform their professional functions in their international relation and communication successfully. Furthermore, the language constraints occur due to lack of grammar knowledge, including when to use certain structures, lack of competence in communication using the language and lack of essential vocabularies/ technical terms in English for each division.

C. PROBLEM LIMITATION

Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office/ PHO is one of government’s agencies in public health services. Some of its functions are organizing and

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coordinating most of the health programs as well as foreign official relation with the foreign agencies. The established organizational structure of PHO consists of the leader of the office, the leaders of divisions, the leaders of sub- divisions and staff. Among those organizational elements, the leader of the office and the leaders of divisions hold the major role in dealing with the international relation. Therefore, the research will limit its discussion on the professional functions in international relation performed by the division leaders and their core staff as well as the competences which are required to perform the international relation and communication successfully. In the following discussion the term “health officials” is employed to address the leaders of the divisions and their core staffs who serve as the research participants.

D. PROBLEM FORMULATION

The research will deal with the professional functions in international relation and communication of the health officials. The research problems are formulated as follows:

1. What are the professional functions mostly performed in English by the health officials in their international relation and communication? 2. What are the most required communicative competences of the

language?

3. How would a syllabus design integrating these professional functions performed in English and the required communicative competences of the language look like?

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E. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The research is conducted to serve some objectives, namely:

1. To obtain qualitative description on the professional functions mostly performed in English by these health officials in their international relation and communication

2. To obtain qualitative description on the most required communicative competences of the language to perform the professional functions successfully

3. To design a syllabus integrating the professional functions and the required communicative competences of the language as the technological by-product of the research.

F. RESEARCH BENEFITS

It is hoped that by focusing on the health official’s current and future knowledge and skills of the language, the research helps them in developing their ability in English and later in performing the professional functions successfully. It is also expected that the research assists the health officials in developing their communicative competence of the language and facilitates them to become more autonomous and independent officials.

Finally, the results of the research are expected to bring worth contribution to future teachers, next researchers, and anybody who are interested in English for Specific Purposes.

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G. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

1. Professional Functions

Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office is a government agent for serving public health. Such office deals mostly with public health management rather than medical health. The office maintain different jobs and functions for different divisions and sub-divisions (Struktur Organisasi Dinas Kesehatan Prop. DIY, 2004). Professional functions themselves refer to all the work activities (or functions) that are embraced within occupations (http://www. archaeologist.net). The research itself has set its limit of study on the professional functions the health officials perform in their international relation and communication.

2. Communicative Competences

Communicative competence refers to the ability to produce situationally acceptable, and more especially socially acceptable, utterances in a particular language (Brown et al, 1996).

The most recent model of communicative competences in language education literatures is that proposed by Celce-Murcia, Dornyei and Thurrell (1995) which is compatible with theoretical view stating that language is communication, not just a set of rules. The elements of communicative competence are those of discourse competence, actional competence, linguistic competence, sociocultural/ sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence.

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3. English for Specific Purposes

English for Specific Purpose is a program which teaches typical English for a special purpose. The typical English is of a particular context of use and which the learners are more likely to meet in the target situation. Such a course is based on a need analysis. The need analysis aims at specifying as closely as possible what exactly the learners have to do through the medium of English. By conducting a need analysis, the learners’ needs to perform successfully in the target situation may be resolved. Concerning the learners, it is often assumed that ESP learners will not be purely beginners but will have already studied General English for some years.

4. Syllabus Development

Syllabus is a statement of content which is used as the basis for planning courses of various kinds (Nunan, 2001). Therefore, the syllabus here does not solely concern with the selection and grading of content but it also concerns with the attempts to specify and grade learning tasks and activities. Furthermore, a syllabus provides practical basis for the division of assessment, textbooks and learning time. It also tells the teacher and the learner not only what is to be learnt, but implicitly, why it is to be learnt. Then, a syllabus also provides a set of criteria for material selection and/or writing (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987).

5. Health Officials

The health officials are the staff of Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office and they hold degree in health. Since they serve in a provincial health office, they perform their jobs in public health management instead of medical/ clinical. They post strategic position in their division or sub- division which, as the consequence,

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require them to maintain relation and communication with international institutions. Therefore, considering their post, they are also required to perform their jobs in dealing with international relation and communication professionally and successfully.

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW & FRAMEWORK

The chapter reviews some theories that become the bases for the discussion. The discussion will be divided into two main parts, namely, theoretical review and theoretical framework.

The theoretical review discusses four major points. They are professional functions, communicative competence, English for Specific Purpose (ESP) and syllabus design. The discussion starts with the professional functions and precedes to the communicative competences which will become the bases for designing a syllabus. The discussion on communicative competences comprises their development and elements as well as their roles in adult learning.

The next discussion is on the program for learners having specific purpose in learning English. The program to be discussed in the English for Specific Purpose Program (ESP). ESP also serves as the background of this research since the English for Health Officials is part of it. The discussion on ESP talks about the ESP development, categories and components.

The last part discusses syllabus design within which the competence- based syllabus design, needs analysis and the steps in syllabus development are reviewed. Finally, all the discussion reviewed will be compiled within a framework provided in the second subchapter.

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A. Theoretical Review

This subchapter elaborates theories of the professional functions, the communicative competence, the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and the syllabus design.

1. Professional Functions

Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office (PHO) as a public health office organization serves a number of functions on public health management. As a provincial office, PHO coordinates and manages health programs and activities performed by PHO itself as well as by the districts. As the main functions of PHO are coordinating and managing, PHO maintains health resource management. In line with the research’s objectives which involves health officials, the health resource management concerns with the human resource management.

Syakdiah (2001) mentions that the important asset owned by an organization and mostly concerned about by the management is that of the human resource of the organization. People (human) represent elements which always exist in every organization. These people formulate, innovate and attain the objectives of the organization. She continues that viewed from the perspective of organization, these people are the resources. They are not the inanimate resources as capital, land, or factories, but they are the human resources.

The health officials as the human resource of PHO mobilize other relevant resources in the PHO organization. They represent the most important resource in the organization due to two reasons (Syakdiah, 2001). First, the

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human resource affects the efficiency and efficacy of the organization. The health officials in their organization design and produce health services, control the quality, promote the health products and services, allocate the financial resource, and determine the overall objectives of the organization. Second, human resource represents the main outcome of the organization.

In general, according to Syakdiah (2001) the human resource management includes:

Planning

Planning refers to determining programs which contribute to the objective attainment as set up by the organization.

Organizing

After a series of actions set up by the organization, the organization needs to organize the attainment process. The organization represents the tool to attain the objectives, organizing means designing the structure of various relation among jobs, personnel and other physical factors.

Directing and motivating

This motivating function is important. This function attempts to mobilize people to work together effectively.

Controlling

This managerial function is related with organizing the activities so the activities run as planned.

Procuring

This function attempts to gain proper personnel in order to attain the organization’s objectives.

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Training and development

This function improves the capability of the human resource. Compensating

This function is formulated as rewards for the human resource for their contribution in the attainment of the organization’s objectives.

Integrating

Integrating concerns with the adjustment of individual’s interests with those of the organization

Maintaining

This function maintains and improves the existing condition Separating

This function is to terminate the occupational relation of a staff with the organization.

As the research concerns, the health officials as the human resource of PHO also perform the above functions in their general occupational activities. However, the research limits its study on the professional functions performed by the health officials in their international relation and communication.

2. Communicative Competences

The discussion on communicative competences comprises their development and elements as well as their roles in adult learning.

a. Development of Communicative Competences

When one uses language to communicate, he/ she use signs in the forms of sounds and letters. Likewise, the health officials communicate and maintain their international relationship through language, both written and spoken. The

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signs are not uttered or written randomly; there are rules to govern so that the signs are understood by others. The rules are called grammar. Sounds and letters which are used governed by rules are used by society in the same cultural context. Hence, language represents a system of social semiotic (Holliday, 2002). Language is used by the society as an social interaction tool. The implication is that a person who lives alone will not be able to use language; being able to use language requires the presence of other persons.

Different view of language is as presented by Chomsky (1978) in which he views language as a set of rules. Linguistics developed by Chomsky and his followers is the idealized linguistics; therefore, competence and performance are considered different. Competence, in its real meaning, refers to language which still exists in its ideal form in a person’s brain, and performance refers to a form of language which is full of errors in the grammar, vocabularies, repetition, hesitation, etc. According to Chomsky (1965), competence consists of the mental representation of linguistic rules which constitute the speaker-hearer’s internalized grammar. Performance consists of the comprehension and production of language. Because the rules the learner has internalized are not open to direct inspection, it has been necessary to examine how the learner performs, mainly in production (Ellis, 1990).

The shift of interest away from linguistic competence and towards communicative competence occurred at a time when theoretical studies of semantics had not really been much applied to the teaching of languages. By 1980, attitudes towards teaching vocabulary were not at all that different from what they had been twenty years earlier, and were largely dominated by ideas

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inherited from the 1930s (Brown et al. 1996) . The 1960s saw a shift away from vocabulary, and the adoption of a general assumption that most learners could get by adequately with a very limited vocabulary (Brown et al., 1996).

Lyons in Brown et al (1996) offers a more or less uncontroversial, non-technical definition of linguistic competence:

Linguistic competence is the knowledge of particular languages, by virtue of which knowledge those who have it are able to produce and understand utterance in those languages.

‘Competence’ definitely and unequivocally refers to something in an individual’s mind or brain. Where as ‘performance’, according to him refers to the production and understanding of utterances (in particular languages). When ‘performance’ is defined by linguists in relation to competence, it is usually defined in its process sense.

Dell Hymes in Brown et al. (1996) coins the term ‘communicative competence’ to label the ability to produce situationally acceptable, and more especially socially acceptable, utterances. Hymes proposes to use “competence” as the most general term for the capabilities of a person. He adds that it is dependent on ‘tacit knowledge’ and ‘ability for use’ and the inclusion of ability for use as part of competence allows in not only cognitive factors, but also noncognitive factors as motivation. By ‘performance’ is meant actual use and actual events. So communicative competence is what enables a person to perform appropriately in speech events. It includes not only grammatical competence, which allows a person to judge whether and to what degree something is formally possible, but also the competence to judge feasibility, appropriateness, and whether something is in fact done.

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Selinker points out that the performance of L2 speakers varies in complex ways, both between individuals and from the performance of L1 speakers. What is less clear is how far, if at all, this variation in performance allows for any claims to be made about the nature of the grammars known by L2 speakers. Interlanguage competence is said to be of three types: fossilized, functional and transitional competence (Brown et al., 1996)

b. Elements of Communicative Competences

The most recent model of communicative competences in language education literatures is that proposed by Celce-Murcia, Dornyei and Thurrell (1995) which is compatible with theoretical view stating that language is communication, not just a set of rules. The implication is that the communicative competence formulated is to prepare learners to communicate using language in order to participate in the language community. This model is formulated as Communicative Competence represented in Celce-Murcia et al. (1995) as follows:

Socio- Cultural Competence

Strategic Competence Linguistic

Competence

Actional Competence Discourse

Competence

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1) Discourse Competence

Learners must develop discourse competence which is concerned with intersentential relationship (Shumin in Richards & Renandya, 2002). In discourse, whether formal or informal, the rules of cohesion and coherence apply, which aid in holding the communication together in a meaningful way. In communication, both the production and comprehension of a language require one’s ability to perceive and process stretches of discourse, and to formulate representation of meaning from referents in both previous sentences and following sentences. Therefore, effective speakers should acquire a large repertoire of structures and discourse markers to express ideas, show relationships of time, and indicate cause, contrast, and emphasis.

Whereas according to Canale & Swain in Richards & Rodgers (2001) discourse competence concerns with the interpretation of individual message elements in terms of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text. Moreover Savignon in Celce-Murcia (2001) refers the interconnectedness as to series of utterances, written words, and /or phrases to form a text, a meaningful whole, bottom – up processing and top down processing, coherence and cohesion, global meaning and structural links.

2) Actional Competence

Yalden (1987) accentuates that learning a language should not be the end in itself, it should account how it is used in real communication. This is in line with Finocchiaro (as cited in Brown, 1987) who mentions that language is the means used by people to communicate and interact.

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Similarly, the competence is referred as to actional competence because when someone says something, he/ she actually do something. He/ she may ask for services, give compliment, ask for information, etc (Landasan Filosofis Teoritis Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, 2004). In brief, when someone uses

language, spoken or written, every utterance that he/ she make could be labeled as actional language.

3) Linguistic Competence

Linguistic competence includes tacit, subconscious knowledge of language structures, not normally available for spontaneous report, but implicitly in what the ideal speaker can say. It is dependent on innate structure, and acquired independently of sociocultural feature except for the mere presence of speech in the environment. Linguistic performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations, but under the idealization quoted by Lyons performance cannot directly reflect competence and nor can it have any major effect on it (Brown et al.,1996).

Linguistic competence is an umbrella concept that includes increasing expertise in grammar (morphology, syntax), vocabulary, and mechanics. Mechanics refer to basic sounds of letters and syllables, pronunciation of words, intonation and stress. Linguistic competence enables speakers to use and understand English language structures accurately and unhesitatingly, which contributes to their fluency (Richards & Renandya, 2002).

Hymes proposes to use “competence” as “the most general term for the capabilities of a person”. It is dependent on “tacit knowledge” and “ability for use” and the inclusion of ability for use as part of competence allows in not only

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cognitive factors, but also noncognitive factors such as motivation. By “performance” is meant actual use and actual events. So, communicative competence is what enables a person to perform appropriately in speech events (Brown et al. 1996). It includes not only grammatical competence, which allows a person to judge whether and to what degree something is formally possible, but also the competence to judge feasibility, appropriateness, and “whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done.

4) Sociocultural/ sociolinguistic Competence

Knowledge of language alone does not adequately prepare learners for effective and appropriate use of the target language (Shumin in Richards & Renandya, 2002). Learners must have competence which involves knowing what is expected socially and culturally by users of the target language; that is, learners must acquire the rules and norms governing the appropriate timing and realization of speech acts. Understanding the sociolinguistic side of language helps learners know what comments are appropriate, how to ask questions during interaction, and how to respond nonverbally according to the purpose of the talk. Also, it helps learners know the social context in which communication takes place, i.e. the roles relationships, the shared information of the participants and the communicative purpose for their interaction (Canale & Swain in Richards & Rodgers, 2001).

5) Strategic Competence

Strategic competence is the way learners manipulate language in order to meet communicative goals (Shumin in Richards & Renandya, 2002). It is the ability to compensate for imperfect knowledge of linguistic, sociolinguistic, and

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discourse rules. With reference to speaking, strategic competence refers to the ability to know when and how to take the floor, how to keep a conversation going, how to terminate the conversation, and how to clear up communication breakdown as well as comprehension problems.

Communication strategies occur when the speaker is not able to communicate his original communicative goal in the way he planned to, and so is forced to reduce the goal or to locate alternative means to express it. Communication strategies, then, are the result of an initial failure to implement a production plan (Ellis, 1990).Where as Savignon (Celce-Murcia, 2001) adds that strategic competence is the coping strategies that are used in unfamiliar contexts. The constraints that often impeded communication are due to imperfect knowledge of rules or limiting factors in their application such as fatigue or distraction.

Canale and Swain identify ‘strategic competence’, defined as ‘how to cope in an authentic communicative situation and how to keep the communicative channel open’, as an integral part of the language user’s overall communicative competence (Ellis, 1990).

Communication strategies can be defined as follows:

Communication strategies are psycholinguistic plans which exist as part of the language user’s communicative competence. They are potentially conscious and serve as substitutes for production plans which the learner is unable to implement (Ellis, 1990)

Further, the effects of different variables on the use of communication strategies are upon the proficiency level, the problem-source, the personality, and the learning situation

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c. Communicative Competences in Adult Learning 1) Adult Learning Characteristics

Although many of the “rules” for teaching children can apply in some ways to teaching adults, the latter age group poses some different, special considerations for the classroom teacher (Brown, 2001). Adults have superior cognitive abilities that can render them more successful in certain classroom endeavors. Their need for sensory input can rely a little more on their imaginations. Their level of shyness can be equal to or greater than that of children, but adults usually have acquired a self- confidence not found in children. And, because adults’ cognitive abilities, they can at least occasionally deal with language that isn’t embedded in a” here and now” context (Brown, 2001).

Adults differ from “typical” or “traditional” K-12 students in that they bring a great deal of life experience and cognitive maturity to the classroom (Hilles and Sutton in Celce-Murcia, 2001). Adult students have a maturity and an understanding of priorities that many younger students do not. According to them, a prime characteristic of adultness is the need and capacity to be self directing. In other words, adults will, to some extent, “direct” their own learning agendas. If the learning environment does not to some degree match cultural expectations and perceived needs, the self- direction may take the form of challenging the teacher or syllabus in class, of filtering out what they perceive as nonessential, of simply leaving the class and seeking some other way of learning, or of abandoning the enterprise altogether.

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In addition to being mature and self- directed, adult learners are often, of necessity, more focused. McIntire (1988) points out that “because time is such valuable commodity, participating in educational program is often personal sacrifice. Typically, adults can devote only limited time to their educational endeavors, which often translates into their being dedicated students who take learning seriously”.

Another characteristic that seems to set apart adult learners, according to Hilles and Sutton (in Celce-Murcia, 2001) is the enormous variability that they display in their goals and reasons for tackling a second language. Adults have numerous reasons for studying a second or foreign language (L2), and this variety of reasons presents its own challenges to the teacher.

Adult learners are most often voluntary learners. Adult learners are in school because they want to be, a desire which is almost inconvenient and often interrupted by family and job responsibilities and commitments (Hilles and Sutton in Celce- Murcia, 2001). As a result, adult learners tend to have little patience with classes which they perceive are not furthering their own educational agendas.

2) Adult Learning Styles

Learning styles refer to an individual’s natural habitual, and preferred ways of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills (Christison in Nunan, 2003).

The main application of style to language learning has been through the concept of analytic and holistic (Skehan, 1998). In the field of language learning

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, the analytic style could manifest itself by an ability to analyze the linguistic material one is exposed to, identify its components, and then, explore relationships between these components. Separating the essential from the inessential could involve an ability to focus on that data which would be most helpful at whatever level of interlanguage development one has reached, and to promote learning and development with maximum efficiency. According to Skehan (1998), it is also possible to relate the analytic style of learning to an input- processing dimension. In the case of auditory material, the learner has to extract what is important from the stream of incoming sound. This sound will contain a great deal of irrelevant information, and it will be advantageous to devote attention to features which help meaning to be recovered. In this respect, the analytic style would relate to the attentional capacities described earlier, with analytic individuals having greater capacity to channel attention selectively and notice important aspects of language. They may then be more able to reflect upon the ways in which they have exploited their attentional system.

The holistic people, in contrast, are likely to be less analytic, to perceive situation as wholes, rather than being analyzable into components, and more likely to depend on external frames of reference for making judgment (rely on other people’s opinions) (Skehan, 1998). To the extent that language development is aided by high- quality interaction, such people are more likely to be naturally drawn through their personal orientation and their comfort in interaction situations to maximize encounters in which they are likely to receive good quality, relevant input, and have opportunities to use language to express meanings. As a result, their interlanguage systems should be stretched by the

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demands to communicate. This raises the possibility that such greater exposure could overcome the problem of a lack of an analytic orientation (Skehan, 1998).

Learning styles in Jordan’s opinion (1997) concerns with the particular approach by which a student tries to learn. Major influences which condition or shape the way learners think and study are: the educational system, the socio-cultural background and personality variables. Oxford (Richards & Renandya, 2002) has identified language learning style as another key determiner of second language strategy choice. She considers that when the students are allowed to learn in their favorite way, unpressured by learning environment or other factors, students often use strategies that directly reflect their preferred learning. According to her, students with an analytic learning style prefer strategies such as contrastive analysis, rule learning, and dissecting words and phrases, where as students with a global style use strategies that help them find the big picture (i.e. guessing, scanning, predicting) and assist them in conversing without knowing all the words (i.e. paraphrasing, gesturing). Visually oriented students use strategies such as listing, word grouping, and so on, whereas those with an auditory preference like work with tapes and practice aloud. Students whose style includes tolerance for ambiguity use significantly different learning strategies in some instances from those used by students who are intolerant of ambiguity.

Table 2.1 . Learning style taxonomy for the L2 classroom.

Learning Style Taxonomy for the Adult L2 Classroom

Type 1: Cognitive Styles Type 2: Sensory Styles Type 3: Personality Styles

Field Dependent – learns best when information is presented in context. They

Perceptual:

Visual – learns best when there is visual

Tolerance of Ambiguity: refers to how comfortable a learner is with

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are often more fluent language learners.

Field independent – learns most effectively step-by-step and with sequential instruction. They are often more accurate language learners.

reinforcement such as charts, pictures, graphs, etc.

Auditory – learns more effectively by listening to information

Tactile – learns more effectively when there is an opportunity to use manipulative resources.

Kinesthetic – learns more effectively when there is movement associated with learning

uncertainty; some learners do well in situations where there are several possible answers; others prefer one correct answer

Analytic – works more effectively alone and at his/her own pace.

Global – works more effectively in groups

Environmental:

Physical – sensitive to learning environment, such as light, temperature, furniture

Sociological – sensitive to relationships within the learning environment

Right and Left

Hemisphere Dominance Left-brain dominant learners tend to be more visual, analytical,

reflective, and self- reliant

Right-brain dominant learners tend to be more auditory, global,

impulsive, and interactive

Reflective – learns more effectively when they have time to consider new information before responding

Impulsive – learns more effectively when they can respond to new

information immediately; as language learners, they are risk takers.

The above table clarifies the learning styles of adults Christison (in Nunan, 2003) provides in learning style taxonomy for the second language classroom.

3) Adult Learning Strategies

Learning strategies refer to characteristics we want to stimulate in students to enable them to become more proficient language learners (Christison in Nunan, 2003).

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Skehan mentions three useful types of strategies. Social- affective strategies concern how learners engage in social interactions more effectively, use their fellow learners and interlocutors to help them solve problems, deal with affective problems; give themselves encouragement; and deal with anxiety. Cognitive strategies are concerned with the direct activities that are engaged in to promote learning. They would include such things as memorization techniques, inferencing, and so on. They represent what learners actually do to process the material that needs to be learned, and would correspond to direct learning strategies. Finally, Skehan elaborates the metacognitive learning strategies, such as goal setting, planning, monitoring, evaluating, channeling attention, and so on. Metacognitive strategies are broader in application that the more direct repertoire of cognitive strategies, and may subsume them. Above all, they are concerned with two things, reflection and flexibility. Reflection represents the learner developing some degree of self- awareness in learning, and shows how a given learner may appreciate his or her strengths and weaknesses. Flexibility arising from effective metacognitive strategy use organizes and gives purpose to the way cognitive and social- affective strategies are used, and increases the likelihood of appropriateness of strategy choice. Skehan continues that rather then engage in activity for its own sake, the good learner is more able, through metacognitive awareness, to select strategies appropriate to a particular problem.

Table 2.2. Learning strategies for Adult L2 Adult learners

Learning strategy Definition of strategy Metacognitive strategies

Planning Previewing main ideas

Making plans to accomplish a task Playing attention to key information Seeking out and arranging for conditions to promote successful learning

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Monitoring Self-checking ones comprehension

Evaluating Developing the ability to determine how well one has accomplished the task

Cognitive strategies

Summarizing Saying or writing the main ideas Induction Figuring out the rules from samples of

language

Imagery Being able to visualize a picture and use it to learn new information

Auditory representation Mentally replaying a word, phrase, or piece of information

Making inferences Using information in the text to guess the meaning

Using resources Developing the ability to use reference materials

Grouping Classifying words, terminology, quantities, or concepts

Note-taking Writing down key words and concepts in verbal, graphic, or numerical form Elaboration of prior knowledge Relating new to known information and

making personal associations Social/Affective strategies

Cooperating Learning how to work with colleague – completing a task, pooling information, solving a problem, and obtaining feedback Clarifying Learning how to ask questions to get

additional explanation or verification from the teacher or someone else who might know the answer

Self-talk Reducing anxiety by talking positively to oneself

Christison as she adopts from Chamot and O’Melly (1994) provides general learning strategies for second language learners as the table above shows. 3. English For Specific Purposes (ESP)

This section elaborates the development of ESP, ESP categories and English for Health Officials.

a. The Development of ESP

The concept of English for a special purpose arose in the early 1960s partly in response to the recognized need for improved communication between

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the developed and the developing countries of the world (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).

The first focus of ESP was on the lexis. The idea was that normal ESL materials would be used but that subject-specific lexical items would be substituted for more general terms . this was originally labeled “register” for want of a better term, and it led to a useful analysis of several sub-branches of science and technology. For science, the grammatical differences from “general English” were fewer than imagined, but what was clear was that simple lexical substitution would be insufficient (Master, 1998).

With the shift away from linguistics at the sentence level and an increasing focus on discourse materials, ESP started to look at “doing science” rather that just describing it. In other words, the view of language as communication opened the way for a more global approach to scientific language, including investigation of the reasoning and conceptual processes scientists applied. The idea that the described rhetorical and discourse structures might be true across languages led to a new concept: that second language learners would learn English by practicing scientific tasks that were already familiar to them in their native languages.

The focus on the needs of the learner as opposed to the inculcation of linguistic facts led to a general shift away from teacher-centeredness to learner- centeredness. ESP practitioners were encouraged to find and use realistic materials (not invented ones) in trying to best meet the needs of their students (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).

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Johns & Machado (in Celce-Murcia, 2001) specify that ESP is a movement based on the proposition that all language teaching should be tailored to the specific learning an language use needs of identified groups of students. And it is sensitive to the socio cultural context in which these students will be using English

b. ESP Categories

The main interests of the ESP movement can be categorized in a number of ways (Johns & Machado in Celce-Murcia, 2001). Based on their current importance, some of these categories will be highlighted as follows: English for Occupational Purposes and English for Academic Purposes. The classification of ESP categories is described in the next figure in the following page.

English for Specific Purposes

English for Academic Purposes English for Occupational Purposes

English for Professional Purposes Vocational ESL

English for Business and

Economics (Academics)

English for Medical Purposes (Academics)

English for the Law (Academics) English for

Science and Technology (Academics)

English for Medical Purposes

Chester VESL Pre-employment

VESL English for

Business Purposes

Workplace VESL

Occupational Specific VESL

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Considering the figure, English for Health Officials is categorized under English for Professional Purposes and it is equal with English for Medical Purposes and English for Business Purposes.

c. English for Health Officials

Peter Strevens as quoted by Johns & Machado in Celce-Murcia (2001) provides the following overview of ESP and its features. The claims for ESP are that it is focused on the learners needs and wastes no time; it is relevant to the learner; it is successful in imparting learning; and it is more cost-effective than “General English.”.

English for Health Officials is an English program which is held for health officials. The main objective of the program is to improve the competence of the health officials in performing and maintaining their international relationship.

The program deals with the use of English in public health management area. The suggested material is focused on the needs area of the study. The activities in the program fit to the real action in the field. The learners are asked to practice their English in the situation which is designed as similar as the real situation.

4. Syllabus Design

A syllabus is defined as a document which says what will be learned. The main function of syllabus is to break down the mass knowledge to be learnt into manageable units (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Richards, 2001; Feez, 2001). There are numbers of syllabuses approaches, such content or product, skills, and method or process (see Nunan, 1998; Jordan, 1997; Richards & Rodgers, 2001).

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Richards (2001) underlines that in choosing a particular syllabus framework of a course, planners are usually influenced by the factors of (1) knowledge and belief about the subject area, (2) research and theory, (3) common practice, and (4) trends.

There are a number of syllabus designs, those are among others: grammatical syllabus, notional – functional syllabus, content – based syllabus, task- based syllabus and situational syllabus.

Grammatical syllabus

Nunan (2001) describes that the point of departure for designing a grammatical syllabus is to select and sequence lists of grammatical items and then integrate these with lists of vocabulary items. Lists of phonological items have sometimes been thrown in for good measure. The assumption under lying this syllabus is that language consists of a finite set of rules which can be combined in various ways to make meaning. The task for the language learner is to master each rule in the order presented by the syllabus before moving on to the next.

Notional- functional syllabus

Nunan (2001) also concerns with notional- functional syllabus in which he considers notions as the general conceptual meanings such as time, cause and duration, while functions are the communicative purposes that are achieved through language such as apologizing, advising, and expressing preferences. Content- based syllabus

Content- based syllabus presents language indirectly via the content of other subjects (Nunan, 2001). Learners acquire the target language in the course

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of doing other things. The approach draws strongly on the experiential view of learning. That is, that active engagement in communicating in the language is the most effective means of acquiring it.

Task- based syllabus

Instead of beginning the design process with lists of grammatical, functional-notional, and other time, the designer of this syllabus type conducts needs analysis which yields a list of the communicative tasks that the learners for whom the syllabus is intended will need to carry out (Nunan, 2001).

Situational syllabus

Situational syllabus is centered around context or situation in which the learner is likely to engage in. Such syllabus lists the situations or contexts in which the language will be used, and analyses the language needed for those situations (Jordan, 1997).

a. Competence- based Syllabus Design

The features of Competence – based syllabus design according to Nunan (in Celce-Murcia 2001) are that it is:

focusing on what learners should be able to do at the end of course of instruction

is concerned with the attainment of specified standards criterion – rather than norm-referenced

Pelayanan Profesional Kurikulum, 2004, (Depdiknas, 2003) adds that the

design consists of : (1) competency standards; (2) basic competency; (3) indicators; (4) teaching materials; (5) learning experience; (6) time allocation; (7) resource and media; and (8) assessment. Further, Finney (Richards & Renandya,

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2002) specifies that the design covers the content and the ordering of what to be taught .

Nunan (Celce-Murcia, 2001) completes the design with the selection, sequencing, and justification of the content of the curriculum. Content selection refers to selecting linguistic features such items of grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary as well as experiential content such as topics and themes.

b. Needs Analysis

Needs analysis is the starting point for devising syllables, courses, materials and the kind of teaching and learning that takes place (Jordan, 1997). Under theumbrella of needs analysis, other approaches have been incorporated. These include: target-situation analysis, present-situation analysis, deficiency analysis, strategy analysis, means analysis, and language audit.

Implicit in needs analysis is the requirement for fact-finding or the collection of data. The starting point is to pose some fundamental questions which can help us to see the appropriate type of analysis and the data needed. The fundamental questions are as follows:

- Why is the analysis being taken? The question is to determine the type of syllabus and content, materials, teaching/ learning; for placement on an appropriate course; etc)

- Whose needs are to analyzed? (the student’s; the sponsor’s – institution or country; the specialist department, etc)

- Who performs the analysis? Who decides what the language needs are? (sponsor; teacher; student; research/ consultant; etc)

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- What is to be analyzed? (target situation; present situation; deficiencies; strategies; means; constraints; necessities; lacks; wants; etc)

- How is the analysis to be conducted? (tests; questionnaires; interviews; documentation; ect)

- When is the analysis to be undertaken? (before the course/ tuition; at the start of the course; during the course; at the end of the course; etc)

- Where is the course to be held? (in the target country, e.g. UK; in the student’s own country; in a third country; etc) (Jordan 1997: 22- 23). 1) Approaches to Needs Analysis

a) Target- situation Analysis

The best known framework for target-situation analysis is the rigorous model devised by Munby (1978). Munby’s approach focuses on the students’ needs at the end of a language course, and target-level performance. Munby is concerned with communicative syllabus design, and his procedures are very detailed. Target-situation analysis obtains some benefits as follows:

o It is seen as the logical starting point for the development of a language program which is responsive to the learner and learning needs (Finney in Richards & Renandya, 2002)

o It guides the selection process (Nunan in Celce-Murcia, 2001)

o It provides the syllabus designer with a basis both for content specification and for the setting of goals and objectives (Nunan in Celce-Murcia, 2001)

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Questionnaires and surveys ; interviews of experts ,students, and stakeholders; observation; job-shadowing, and analysis; multiple intelligence and learning style surveys of the learners; modes of working; spoken or written reflection by the learner-or their supervisors - before, during, or the instruction (Nunan in Celce-Murcia 2001).

b) Present-situation analysis

Jordan (1997) proposes a present- situation analysis which ascertains the learners’ state of language development at the beginning of the language course. The sources of information are: the learners themselves, the teaching establishment, and the “user institution”, e.g. place of work, sponsoring body, etc. The methods of collection of data are surveys, questionnaires and interviews. Information is sought on levels of ability resources and views on language teaching/ learning. Essentially, the learner is at the centre of the system, which includes the surrounding society and culture.

c) Deficiency analysis

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) sub- divide target needs into ‘necessities’, ‘lacks’ and ‘wants’. By ‘necessities’ they mean what the learner has to know in order to function effectively in the target situation (this would involve obtaining information about the situations in which the language will be used, e.g. lectures, seminars, etc., and the discourse components and linguistic features commonly used in them, e.g. functions, structures, vocabulary, etc). ‘Lacks’ represent the gap between the target proficiency and what the learner knows already. The necessities that the learner lacks can form the basis of the language syllabus: this is referred to as deficiency analysis (Jordan, 1997).

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d) Strategy analysis

Jordan (1997) describes that in the 1980s the focus of needs analysis turned more towards the methodology employed to implement language programs. According to him this involved not only methods of teaching, but also methods of learning. In other words, observing the preferred learning styles and strategies of learners. Related areas in a strategy analysis are preferences in group size, correction procedures and methods of assessment.

e) Means analysis

An important strand in the development of needs analysis is the attempt to adapt language courses to local situation (Jordan, 1997). In other words, ‘means analysis’ is to accommodate what are frequently seen to be ‘constraints’, e.g. cultural attitudes, resources, materials, equipment, methods; Also, it involves a study of the local situation, i.e. the teachers, teaching methods, students, facilities, etc. to see how a language course may be implemented. ‘Means analysis’ starts from a positive premise, i.e. what might be achieved with certain, given factors. It allows sensitivity to situations in any country and discourages the imposition of alien models ( of teaching, methodology, learning, etc.). The purpose of the analysis is to prevent alienation caused by imported teaching methods that may be culturally inappropriate (Jordan, 1997).

f) Language Audit

Language audit are large scale exercises in defining language needs carried out for companies, regions or countries (Jordan, 1997). They provide data and may propose training or educational policies to be implemented over a period of time.

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2) Interview and Questionnaire a) Interview

Kvale (1996) regards an interview as an interchange of views between two or more people on a topic of mutual interest, sees the centrality of human interaction for knowledge production, and emphasizes the social situatedness of research data. Knowledge itself should be as constructed between participants, therefore, the interview is not exclusively either subjective or objective, it is intersubjective. Interviews enable participants to discuss their interpretations of the world in which they live, and to express how they regard situations from their own point of view. Hence, the interview is not simply concerned with collecting data about life: it is part of life itself, its human embeddedness is inescapable.

Cohen et al. (2000) suggests the purposes of the interview as to evaluate or assess a person in some respect, to select or promote an employee, to effect therapeutic change, as in the psychiatric interview, to test or develop hypotheses, to gather data, as in surveys or experimental situations, to sample respondents’ opinions, as in doorstep interview.

Further, Cohen et al. (2000) lays out the strengths and weaknesses of different types of interview.

Table. 2.3. Strengths and weaknesses of different interview types (Cohen et al., 2000).

Type of Interview Characteristics Strengths Weaknesses

1 Informal conversational interview

Questions emerge from the immediate context and are asked in the natural course of things; there is no

predetermination of question topics or wording.

Increases the salience and relevance of questions;

interviews are built on and emerge from observation; the interview can be matched to individuals and circumstances. Different information collected from different people with different questions. Less systematic and comprehensive if certain questions don’t arise “naturally”. Data

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organization and analysis can be quite difficult. 2 Interview

guide approach

Topics and issues to be covered are specified in advance, in outline form; interviewer decides sequence and working of questions in the course of the interview.

The outline increases the comprehensiveness of the data and makes data collection somewhat

systematic for each respondent. Logical gaps in data can be anticipated and closed. Interviews remain fairly conversational and situational. Important and salient topics may be inadvertently omitted. Interviewer flexibility in sequencing and wording questions can result in substantially different responses, thus reducing the comparability of responses. 3 Standardized open-ended interviews

The exact wording and sequence of questions are determined in advance. All interviews are asked the same basic questions in the same order.

Respondents answer the same questions, thus increasing comparability of responses; data are complete for each person on the topics addressed in the interview. Reduces

interviewer effects and bias when several

interviewers are used. Permits decision-makers to see and review the instrumentation used in the evaluation. Facilitates organization and analysis of the data.

Little flexibility in relating the interview to particular individuals and circumstances; standardized wording of questions may constrain and limit naturalness and relevance of questions and answers. 4 Closed quantitative interviews Questions and response categories are determined in advance. Responses are fixed;

respondent chooses from among these fixed responses

Data analysis is simple; responses can be directly compared and easily aggregated; many short questions can be asked in a short time.

Respondents must fit their

experiences and feelings into the researcher’s categories; may be perceived as impersonal, irrelevant, and mechanistic. Can distort what respondents really mean or

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completely limiting their response choices.

Kvale (1996) sets out seven stages of an interview investigation:

o Thematizing. Formulate the purpose of an investigation and describe the

concept of the topic to be investigated before the interviews start. The why and what of the investigation should be clarified before the question

of how – method – is posed.

o Designing. Plan the design of the study, taking into account consideration

all stages of the investigation, before the interviewing starts.

o Interviewing. Conduct the interviews based on an interview guide and

with a reflective approach to the knowledge sought and the interpersonal relation of the interview situation

o Transcribing. Prepare the interview material for analysis, which

commonly includes a transcription from oral speech to written text.

o Analysing. Decide, on the basis of the purpose and topic of the

investigation, and on the nature of the interview material, which methods of analysis are appropriate for the interviews

o Verifying. Ascertain the generalizability, reliability, and validity of the

interview findings.

o Reporting. Communicate the findings of the study and the methods

applied in a form that lives up to scientific criteria, takes the ethical aspects of the investigation into consideration, and that results in a reliable product.

(54)

b) Questionnaire

Johns and Price-Machado in Celce-Murcia (2001) state that questionnaire can be given to the students themselves, their employers or supervisors, or the audiences to whom they will be writing or speaking.

Cohen further presents that concerning operationalizing a questionnaire, the process is to take a general purpose or set of purpose and turn these into concrete, researchable fields about which actual data can be gathered. A questionnaire’s general purposes must be clarified and then translated into a specific, concrete aim or set of aims. Then, the planning involves the identification and itemizing of subsidiary topics that relate to its central purpose. Next, it continues with the identification and itemization of subsidiary topics and involves formulating specific information requirements relating to each of these issues.

c. Syllabus Development

The process of syllabus development in language teaching involve assessing the needs of learners in a language program, developing goals and objectives, planning a syllabus, selecting teaching approaches and materials, and deciding on assessment procedures and criteria (Richards & Renandya, 2002).

Syllabus is curriculum in its narrowest sense. Syllabus specifies the content and the ordering of what is to be taught. The purposes of the program are to transmit knowledge of the language system to the learners and to ensure that they master the grammar rules and vocabulary of the language; the content or the syllabus is a selection and sequencing of individual grammar points and lexis;

(55)

the teaching procedures and learning experiences will include drilling of grammatically correct sentences, explanations of theory and memorization of lists of vocabulary; and assessment is based on the learner’s ability to produce grammatically accurate language.

(1)

No Aktifitas Kantor Yang Dilakukan - sending the letters 5. Penyusunan Proposal - Preparing the proposal

- Consulting the proposal to competent stakeholders - Revising the proposal - Presenting the proposal - Submitting the proposal 6. Penyusunan Laporan - Preparing the report

- Consulting the report to competent parties

- Reviewing the report - Revising the report - Presenting the report - Submitting the report 7. Perjalanan dinas - Preparing visas and other

administrative requirements (at the central office and/or embassy) - Communication during the travel

(on the flight, etc) 8. Mengumpulkan informasi - Browsing via internet

- Reading the articles - Making summaries of the

articles

9. Pencarian dana - Preparing the program - Proposing the program to

international donors

- Negotiating with the donors - Finalizing the program - Executing the program - Presenting the program result 10. Translating (Penterjemahan tertulis) - Preparing the documents

- Consulting the documents with the authors

11. Interpreting (Penterjemahan lisan) - Preparing necessary document for the meeting/ seminar

- Coordinating the meeting/ seminar

12. Mengikuti beasiswa/shortcourse/ study banding/ benchmarking

- Preparing visa

- Communication during the travel - Communication during the

fellowship/ short course/

comparative study/ benchmarking - Daily communication during the

fellowship/ short course/

comparative study/ benchmarking - Preparing the activity report - Presenting the activity report

(2)

Jumlah participants dalam isian cara mengajar dan belajar yang dapat mendukung pembelajaran dalam mengembangkan aspek-aspek kemampuan ber- B.Inggris:

Number

of Participant

Mengajar/ Belajar

2 Menggunakan kontek

1 Menggunakan langkah-langkah/prosedur

3 Menggunakan media audio visual

12 Menggunakan permainan/simulasi/bermain peran

2 Belajar mandiri

7 Belajar kelompok

Lainnya: sebutkan - field visit

Item pada tipe B. Inggris yang dipilih untuk diajarkan. (dalam hubungannya dengan aktifitas pekerjaan)

B. Inggris Formal (24) Alasan:

- untuk menghadapi tamu asing - birokrasi

- sesuai kebutuhan

- pekerjaan yang berkaitan dengan dunia akademik - perlu dalam membuat proposal

- era globalisasi

B. Inggris Informal (6) Alasan:

- tidak terikat, dalam kondisi santai - lebih cepat menangkap

Item berapa lama pelatihan B. Inggris ini berlangsung. - sampai dengan lancar berbahasa Inggris

- hingga tingkat penyerapan yang cukup - enam bulan

- sesuai dengan kemampuan

- manut, yang penting efektif, efisien & gampang dicerna - enam bulan, setiap minggu 2x – 3x @ 1,5 jam

- paling tidak 3 hari/minggu, selama satu tahun berturut-turut (kontinyu) - 1 tahun

(3)

- sampai yakin dianggap bisa B. Inggris (terukur)

Item tempat dan waktu pelatihan B. Inggris berlangsung. - dikantor : jam 14 – 15.30

- dikantor, sehabis jam kantor

- dikantor, 1 jam sebelum jam kantor usai

- diluar kantor, tempat yang nyaman, 14.00 – 15.30 - dikantor, jam 12.00

Other remarks:

- kursus B. Inggris bukan pemecahan masalah utama dalam

ketidakmampuan berbahasa Inggris. Akan sangat bermanfaat bila ketidakmampuan berbahasa Inggris diatasi dengan program secara kelembagaan/ institusional di internal Dinkes Prop. DIY. Misal

1x/minggu diselenggarakan pertemuan/ rapat dengan bahasa pengantar bahasa Inggris dengan didampingi fasilitator bahasa.

- Sudah saatnya pelayanan publik/ petugas puskesmas juga bisa B. Inggris (antisipasi era globalisasi) minimal bisa menangkap informasi-informasi dari komputer, manual book dari alat kesehatan, bahan-bahan kesehatan maupun farmasi.

(4)

Appendix 5 Research Statement Completion

(5)

(6)

The professional functions and communicative competence in english health officials.

THE PROFESSIONAL FUNCTIONS AND

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN

ENGLISH FOR HEALTH OFFICIALS

By

Theresia Laksmi Widyarini

Student Number: 046332013

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM (S2) IN

ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW & FRAMEWORK

Appendix 5

Research Statement Completion

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CONCEPTUAL AND COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTIONS IN WRITTEN DISCOURSE.

HOW “LET’S TALK” ENGLISH TEXTBOOK DEVELOPS THE STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE.

THESIS Compatibility Of Textbook “English In Focus” With Content Standard And Communicative Competence.

INTRODUCTION Compatibility Of Textbook “English In Focus” With Content Standard And Communicative Competence.

INCREASING THE COMPETENCE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION IN GLOBAL CONTEXTS: FROM COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE TO INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE.

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING SPEAKING

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PROCEEDING : English in the professional world : issues of the teaching of english language and culture in the professional word - Unika Repository

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Dukungan

Links

The professional functions and communicative competence in english health officials.

THE PROFESSIONAL FUNCTIONS AND

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN

ENGLISH FOR HEALTH OFFICIALS

By

Theresia Laksmi Widyarini

Student Number: 046332013

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM (S2) IN

ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW & FRAMEWORK





Appendix 5

Research Statement Completion

Parts

Dokumen yang terkait

The representation of culture in english textbooks prescribed for high schools in Indonesia

CONCEPTUAL AND COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTIONS IN WRITTEN DISCOURSE.

HOW “LET’S TALK” ENGLISH TEXTBOOK DEVELOPS THE STUDENTS’ COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE.

THESIS Compatibility Of Textbook “English In Focus” With Content Standard And Communicative Competence.

INTRODUCTION Compatibility Of Textbook “English In Focus” With Content Standard And Communicative Competence.

INCREASING THE COMPETENCE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION IN GLOBAL CONTEXTS: FROM COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE TO INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE.

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN TEACHING SPEAKING

Teachers and students’ perceptions of communicative competence in English as a foreign language in Indonesia

PROCEEDING : English in the professional world : issues of the teaching of english language and culture in the professional word - Unika Repository

THE PROFESSIONAL FUNCTIONS AND COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN ENGLISH FOR HEALTH OFFICIALS

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