Conceptual Development

Method

brand was favored over the immoral brand (M moral = 4.81 > brand name, Mardi, as in Study 3. We manipulated brand

M neutral = 4.49 > M immoral = 3.47). The effect of brand group morality by having participants read a newspaper article

membership was also significant (M in = 4.38 > M out = 4.13; describing Mardi’s decision to contribute/not contribute/

F(1, 305) = 3.81, p = .05) such that consumers favored in- undecided to an educational program to reduce the educa-

group brands more than out-group brands. Importantly, the tional gap between the rich and the poor in the United

three-way interaction of identity condition, brand morality, States for the moral/immoral/neutral conditions, respec-

and brand group membership was significant (F(11, 305) = tively (see Appendix C). Pretest participants (N = 55 under-

4.15, p = .01). Thus, we next examined the effect of identity graduate students) were randomly assigned to one of the

prime by each brand morality level. three brand morality conditions and read the corresponding

First, the two-way interaction between identity condi- newspaper article. Then, they indicated perceived brand

tion and brand group membership was not significant for morality on five items (  = .90; see Appendix A). An

the moral brand (F(1, 102) = .84, p > .36) or the immoral ANOVA confirmed a significant effect of brand morality

brand (F(3, 98) = .65, p > .42; see Figure 4). In contrast, the condition on brand morality perceptions (F(2, 51) = 7.27,

two-way interaction between identity condition and brand p < .01). In addition, we conducted one-sample t-tests for

group membership was significant for the morally neutral the moral and immoral conditions against the mean of the

brand (F(3, 105) = 13.10, p < .001). Planned contrasts neutral condition (4.14). In the moral (immoral) condition,

revealed that when Mardi was presented as an out-group the mean was significantly higher (lower) than the neutral

brand that was morally neutral, MI (vs. SI) resulted in more condition (M

= 4.82; t(17) = 2.27, p < .05; M

favorable brand attitudes (M MI = 4.97, M SI = 3.96; F(1,

105) = 13.37, p < .001). When Mardi was presented as an 3.44; t(17) = –3.54, p < .01). We also examined article real- in-group brand, there was no effect of identity (M = 4.71, ism and relevance, but brand morality did not affect either

M SI = 4.31; F(1, 105) = 2.14, p > .10). The effect size of the (ps > .70; see Appendix A). Taken together, these results

interaction of identity condition and brand group member- demonstrate that the brand morality primes worked as

ship in the neutral condition was large (Cohen 1992; 2 h p = intended.

.110; Cohen’s d = .70). These results support H 4 . Participants and procedure . Participants were 317 under-

Mediating role of psychological distance . We used the graduate students (49% male) who participated for course

bootstrapping approach from Study 3 to assess the mediat- credit. We used a 2 (brand group membership: in-group vs.

ing role of psychological distance in the morally neutral out-group) ¥ 2 (accessible identity: SI vs. MI) ¥ 3 (brand

brand condition (for the IOS means, see Table 1). First, the morality: moral, immoral, and neutral) between-subjects

95% CI for the accessible identity ¥ brand group member- design. We presented the experiment as three separate stud-

ship interaction excluded zero (.0113 to .7175), so we ies. Part 1 was identical to Study 3: participants listed one

examined the pattern of mediation for in-group and out- in-group and one out-group. In Part 2, they completed

group brands. The 95% CI for the conditional indirect effect either the MI or SI writing assessment task as in Studies 1

of identity condition did not include zero for the out-group and 2. In Part 3, they were randomly assigned to one of six

brand (.3632 to 1.2047) but included zero for the in-group conditions: moral/in-group brand, neutral/in-group brand,

brand (–.2518 to .5262). These findings indicate that psy- immoral/ in-group brand, moral/out-group brand, neutral/

chological distance mediated the effect of identity condition out-group brand, and immoral/out-group brand. We pre-

for the out-group brand, in support of H 3 and consistent sented the pretested newspaper article about the hypotheti-

with Study 3. As we anticipated, psychological distance did cal watch brand, Mardi, along with the information used in

not underlie attitudes toward moral and immoral brands Study 3 that several members of their self-identified in-

because there was no effect of identity. group (out-group) wear Mardi watches. Then, participants

Discussion . Study 4 identifies a boundary condition of indicated their attitude toward the Mardi brand with the

the MI effect. When brands are perceived as moral or same four items used in previous studies (  = .88).

immoral, consumers’ MI does not appear to influence the

Can Brands Move In from the Outside? / 105

FIGURE 4

General Discussion

Effect of Brand Morality, Accessible Identity, and

In a series of four studies, this research offers important

Brand Membership on Brand Attitude (Study 4)

insights into the effects of moral identity in the marketplace

A: Moral Brand

beyond consumer donations and prosocial behavior. A pilot study provides initial evidence that the effect of moral iden-

7 tity extends beyond moral behaviors to marketplace judg- ments unrelated to morality (i.e., object categorizations).

d 5.13 4.86 Then, theorizing how moral identity may influence attitudes tu 5 4.56 4.70 toward in-group and out-group brands, we demonstrate that

tti

moral identity can increase out-group brand attitude (Study d A 4

1). Importantly, this occurs not only for neutral out-group

brands but also for dissociative out-group brands, which ra 3

tend to have stronger negative associations (Study 2). In 2

addition, we show that while consumers’ moral identity 1

does not influence out-group brand attitude for moral or

Out-Group Brand

In-Group Brand

immoral brands, moral identity is beneficial to out-group brands with more neutral brand morality perceptions (Study

B: Neutral Brand

4). Moreover, this effect occurs because consumers with an accessible moral identity perceive less distance between

7 themselves and out-group brands (Studies 3 and 4). In the case of in-group brands as well as aspirational group

d 4.97 4.71

brands, because the perceived distance between consumers

tu 5 4.31 and these brands is minimal, moral identity does not exert

tti

3.96 an influence. Thus, MI influences out-group brand attitude d A 4

through reduced psychological distance due to smaller dis-

ra 3 tinctions between objects rather than a decrease in prejudice

toward out-groups.

Theoretical Contributions for the Role of Moral Out-Group Brand

In-Group Brand

Identity in Marketplace Judgments

Our primary theoretical contributions are to literature on

C: Immoral Brand

reference groups, moral identity, and accessible and chronic identities. First, we contribute to the reference group litera-

7 ture by identifying one of the few ways unfavorable atti- 6

tudes toward out-groups can be overcome—namely, moral

ed

identity. While the extant reference group literature (e.g., tu 5

Chan, Berger, and Van Boven 2011; White and Argo 2011)

tti

A 4 3.57 3.71 3.57 d has identified the unfavorable attitudes toward out-groups, n

3.02 we provide new insights into the process through which this ra 3

effect occurs by examining psychological distance.

2 Whereas previous work has shown that the effect of moral

identity on charitable donations to in-groups and out-groups 1

is mediated by IOS (Winterich, Mittal, and Ross 2009), the

Out-Group Brand

In-Group Brand

current research moves beyond this existing research by

SI condition

MI condition

demonstrating that the psychological distance between a consumer and a brand can be assessed. Moreover, psycho- logical distance constitutes the underlying process affecting

effect of brand group membership on brand attitude because brand attitude rather than being limited solely to processes brand (im)morality perceptions tend to override in-group

involving judgments of other people. preferences that otherwise occur. However, when brand

We also augment the moral identity literature by morality is neutral, MI can enhance out-group brand atti-

demonstrating that the effect of moral identity extends tude such that morally neutral out-group brands may benefit

beyond morally relevant judgments and behaviors (Aquino, more from MI than moral or immoral brands. We also repli-

McFerran, and Laven 2011; Reed, Aquino, and Levy 2007; cated the mediating role of psychological distance found in

Skarlicki, Van Jaarsveld, and Walker 2008) to brand atti- Study 3. Together, these four studies provide strong support

tudes and categorization, substantially extending the scope for our theorizing that MI can aid in overcoming the nega-

of moral identity. We believe these results will open up tive attitudes otherwise associated with out-group brands.

research avenues to consider the unique benefits of moral

106 / Journal of Marketing, March 2013 106 / Journal of Marketing, March 2013

Khare 2009). 7 Furthermore, in additional studies not reported here, chronic moral identity increased out-group brand atti- tude, demonstrating that chronic moral identity has an effect similar to that of accessible moral identity, consistent with prior research (Aquino, McFerran, and Laven 2011; Reed, Aquino, and Levy 2007). Thus, we do not believe that the source of moral identity (chronic or situational) signifi- cantly affects the findings demonstrated here, though a con- trasting identity that is situationally accessible may attenu- ate the effects of chronic moral identity, consistent with Aquino et al. (2009). Taken together, our findings are con- sistent with existing research such that traits (i.e., chronic moral identity) are malleable because they are multifaceted, whereas temporarily accessible identities have more pre- dictable effects, though for a shorter period of time (Wheeler, DeMarree, and Petty 2010).

Managerial Implications

Our findings offer several insights for brand managers. First, recognizing that today’s diverse society consists of many out-groups and a small number of in-groups (Pitts and Jarry 2007), improving consumers’ less favorable atti- tudes toward an out-group brand is an important issue for brand managers. Brands may aim to expand beyond the niche submarkets they originally served to reach a broader consumer base (Aaker 1991; Erdem and Sun 2002), as is the case for brands such as Adidas, Cadillac, and Whole Foods. Our results are likely to be of particular benefit to such brands attempting to reposition to an in-group brand for current out-group consumers or those attempting to expand their existing brand image beyond their current in- group consumers.

Marketers are unlikely to know the level of any given consumer’s moral identity, making these results difficult to apply. However, we demonstrate that out-group brand atti- tude may be improved when activating moral identity in an advertisement. While the elicitation of moral identity through an advertisement (Study 3) may be subtle, it is likely to be effective for many consumers given that most consumers hold a base level of morality as important to

Can Brands Move In from the Outside? / 107

themselves (Aquino and Reed 2002) that merely needs to

be made accessible. That is, even for consumers for whom moral traits are not chronically active, a relatively subtle prime in an advertisement could activate a consumer’s thoughts regarding moral identity, making this identity more relevant than other identities, even if only temporarily. Thus, marketers should ensure that the communications eliciting moral identity are presented near the point of pur- chase or at the final stages of the decision-making process (e.g., point-of-purchase advertising displays, storefront signs eliciting moral identity).

Marketers can also appeal to consumers’ chronic moral identity. A benefit of appealing to chronic moral identity to increase out-group brand attitudes is that the proximity of the appeal to the point of purchase may not be as critical, such that television commercials or other types of market- ing communications (e.g., direct mail, e-mail) may be effec- tive for consumers with chronically high moral identity even when they occur at some point before the purchase. In addition, marketers may think that it is unnecessary to elicit moral identity through advertisements for those with chronic moral identity; however, doing so may prevent other identities that are temporarily accessible from overrid- ing the effect of chronic moral identity (Aquino et al. 2009). Further research should consider whether the effectiveness of an advertisement eliciting moral identity depends on consumer characteristics such as chronic moral identity as well as product characteristics such as industry.

We also offer insight into how consumers’ morality can interact with brands’ morality (as evidenced through CSR activities; Lichtenstein, Drumwright, and Braig 2004; Sen and Bhattacharya 2001), which may be particularly impor- tant to brand managers depending on consumers’ current perceptions of their brand’s morality. Although some firms prominently engage in CSR initiatives that likely result in consumer perceptions of brand morality (e.g., TOMS shoes, Ben & Jerry’s), other brands may be perceived as morally neutral either because they do not engage in CSR activities or simply because consumers are not aware of the brands’ moral initiatives. We demonstrate that accessible moral identity can increase brand attitudes for morally neutral out- group brands such that eliciting moral identity in promo- tional campaigns may enhance out-group brand attitudes even if brands are not actively engaged in CSR activities or other moral behaviors. In other words, out-group brands need not be perceived as moral to reap the benefits of an accessible moral identity. We also find that consumers have more favorable brand attitudes toward moral brands regard- less of accessible identity, which suggests that firms engag- ing in CSR activities will likely benefit from increasing consumers’ awareness of such activities even if they forgo eliciting moral identity. For example, if a company is not perceived as particularly moral (e.g., offering gambling, cigarettes, weapons, unhealthy food), it may benefit by increasing consumer awareness of CSR activities in which it is engaged. Examining these effects is an important avenue for further research, as the managerial implications may be substantial.

7 We measured chronic MI with the internalization dimension of the Self-Importance of Moral Identity Scale (Aquino and Reed

2002).When we entered chronic MI in the model with accessible MI and brand group membership on brand attitudes, it was not sig- nificant, nor were there any significant interactions. While some research studies the interaction of chronic and situationally acces- sible identities (Aquino et al. 2009; Zhang and Khare 2009), this was not the intent of this research.

To be sure, not all brands aim to improve out-group members’ brand attitudes. Niche alternative brands such as Hot Topic and Irn Bru or luxury brands such as Hermès and Mercedes-Benz may strive to be perceived as out-group brands because this increases the desirability of the brand to the in-group (Kapferer 2001; Štrach and Everett 2006). Thus, there are some benefits to being perceived as out- group brands. These brands might continue to use specific social identities (e.g., student, business professional, soccer mom) in their advertisements to ensure that the in- group/out-group distinction remains.

Limitations and Further Research

It is important to note that the effect sizes were weaker in studies using actual brands compared with those using hypothetical brands, which may be due to not only the var- iation in self-identified brands but also the heterogeneity of consumers’ associations for actual brands. To overcome this limitation, Study 3 used a hypothetical brand but, in doing so, failed to obtain the significant main effect of brand group membership. Study 4 also used a hypothetical brand to avoid consumers’ preexisting perceptions of brand (im)morality, but doing so may have limited the nuances of the joint effect of consumer moral identity and brand moral- ity on out-group brand attitudes if consumers hold strong brand morality perceptions. These important limitations advocate for additional research with actual brands. Repli- cating the current findings with actual brands is essential to understand whether these effects are strong enough to with- stand the realities of the marketplace in which an array of factors influence consumers’ brand attitudes and choices.

Further research should also identify additional factors that may attenuate consumers’ unfavorable attitudes toward out-group brands. Although prior research on reference groups has primarily focused on boundary conditions of favorable in-group brand attitudes (for an exception, see White and Dahl 2007), we believe that out-group brand atti- tudes can be increased in diverse ways, one of which includes appealing to consumers’ moral identity. In addi- tion, our pilot study revealed that moral identity can influ- ence categorization such that accessible moral identity results in more holistic categorizations. This finding sug- gests the possibility that moral identity might come into play for other marketplace judgments. For example, con- sumers’ perceptions of brand extensions or line extensions might vary depending on their level of moral identity because this type of assessment involves categorization to a certain extent. Similar to prior research that has demon- strated that interdependence—which is associated with more relational, holistic processing—may result in more favorable attitudes toward brand extensions with low fit (Ahluwalia 2008), further research should examine whether the expansiveness associated with moral identity may result in more favorable attitudes toward brand extensions, partic- ularly for those extensions that are otherwise perceived to have low fit. Given that accessible moral identity resulted in flexible categorizations of objects, they may also be more likely to perceive a greater fit between parent and extended brands.

108 / Journal of Marketing, March 2013

In summary, this research opens up the possibility that moral identity influences marketplace judgments such that consumers’ less favorable attitudes toward out-group brands may be improved. Further research should examine when and for whom, either by consumer or brand character- istics, the effectiveness of moral identity accessibility can

be maximized, so firms can construct their marketing strat- egy and advertising campaigns accordingly. We conclude that moral identity may act as a gatekeeper, determining which brands are acceptable to consumers, and marketers may be able to utilize this relationship to their benefit.

Appendix A Description of Study Measures

1. Identity prime manipulation check (Studies 1, 2, and 4; from Reed, Aquino, and Levy 2007): “Please indicate the extent to which your writing reflects how you see yourself as (1) a student, (2) a member of an organization, (3) a moral person, and (4) safety conscious (1 = ‘to some extent,’ and 7 = ‘to a great extent’).” In the second pretest for Study 3, we replaced “safety conscious” with “a busi- ness leader,” and we replaced “your writing” with “this advertisement.”

2. Brand attitude (Studies 1–4; from Sood and Keller 2012; White and Dahl 2007): We assessed an attitude toward each brand with four items on a seven-point scale anchored by “bad/good,” “unfavorable/favorable,” “negative/positive,” and “low quality/high quality.”

3. Advertisement evaluation (Study 3 pretests 1 and 2, Main Study 3): “Please indicate your evaluation of the advertise- ment of Mardi: (1) ‘very unfavorable/very favorable’ and (2) ‘dislike very much/like very much’” (on a seven-point scale).

4. Quality/brand morality (Study 3 pretest 2): “Please indicate the quality and morality of the Mardi brand on two items” (1 = “very low quality/very immoral,” and 7 = “very high quality/very moral”).

5. Psychological distance (Studies 3 and 4; from Aron, Aron, and Smollan 1992): “Please indicate which set of overlap- ping circles below best represents how you feel regarding (brand name).”

6. Brand morality (Study 4; from Aquino and Reed’s 2002 Moral Identity Instrument): “Please indicate to what extent the following characteristics describe a watch brand, ‘Mardi’ (caring, fair, friendly, generous, and kind; 1 = ‘not at all,’ and 7 = ‘very much’).”

7. Newspaper article check (Study 4 pretest): “How realistic/relevant was the newspaper article?” (1 = “not at all,” and 7 = “very much”).

Appendix C Newspaper Articles Presented in Study 4

All participants read the following paragraph, which was followed by one of the three randomly assigned brand

morality conditions 8 :

8 We developed these manipulations from an actual newspaper article that we adapted to influence brand morality.

APPENDIX B

Advertisements Priming Moral Identity and Business Identity

A: Moral Identity Condition

@+4&()"&(&-").+$&65+&#.&'()#$%*& '+,-(..#+$(/"*&0(#)*&0)#"$123*& %"$")+4.*&5"2-042*&5()16+)7#$%*& 5+$"./&($1&7#$1=& &

A+)&-"+-2"&.4'5&(.&3+4&? ! B()1#&6(/'5".= !

!"#$%&'()#$%*&'+,-(..#+$(/"*&0(#)*&0)#"$123* &%"$")+4.*&5"2-042*&5()16+)7#$%*&5+$"./&( $1&7#$18

B: Business Identity Condition

@+4&()"&(&C4.#$"..&-)+0"..#+$(2* &65+&5(.&5#%5&./($1()1.*&& "D'""1.&"D-"'/(/#+$.*&($1&#.& '+,,#//"1&/+&.4''"..=

A+)&C4.#$"..&-)+0"..#+$(2.&

2#7"&3+4&?B()1#&6(/'5".=

!"#$%&'()#$%*&'+,-(..#+$(/"*&0(#)*&0)#"$123* &%"$")+4.*&5"2-042*&5()16+)7#$%*&5+$"./&( $1&7#$18

For the fourth year in a row, several states like Maryland between the state’s richest and poorest jurisdictions, and California have topped the nation in the proportion of

which is great cause for concern.

high school graduates who successfully passed the rigor- ous Advanced Placement exams, suggesting that the com-

Moral Brand Condition

mitment of these states to investment in education is pay- ing off with the kind of advanced, high-level academic

Mardi, the watch brand, has recently launched a special initiative aimed at thwarting the widening educational gap

skills necessary to compete successfully. However, the between the rich and poor. Mardi says they will donate $2 huge gap between the highest and lowest performing

for each Mardi watch sold in the US. Representatives of schools tracks almost exactly the differences in wealth

Mardi say educating America’s future is a top priority.

Can Brands Move In from the Outside? / 109

Immoral Brand Condition

its. Representatives from Mardi could not be reached for comment.

Recently, companies from several large consumer brands, including Mardi, held a meeting to discuss ways to

Neutral Brand Condition

address the widening educational gap between the rich and poor. Several companies announced that they will

Mardi, the watch brand, is considering launching a special launch a special initiative to improve education by donat-

initiative aimed at thwarting the widening educational gap ing $2 for each of their products sold in the US. However,

between the rich and poor. At this time, representatives reports state that Mardi, the watch brand, has decided not

from Mardi did not specify if or when such a program to participate in this initiative since it may decrease prof-

would begin.

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