Instructional Design Models Theoretical Description

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter deals with review on literature related to the area being searched in this study. There are two sections in this chapter: Theoretical Description and Theoretical Framework. Theoretical Description contains citations and paraphrases of the theories and other relevant research studies which contribute knowledge to the focus of this study. Theoretical Framework consists of summary and synthesis of all major relevant theories to give answers to research questions, and this section provides the relation between theories and this study.

A. Theoretical Description

Based on the area being searched in this study, the researcher divides this section into three parts, namely Instructional Design Models, Grammar, and Contextual Teaching and Learning CTL.

1. Instructional Design Models

There are some models for designing instructional learning materials. The writer finds three models related to the area being searched. a. Instructional Design Model by Kemp Kemp 1977: 8 – 9 suggests a development of instructional design plan which consists of eight interdependent elements as follows: 1 Determine goals, make a list of topic, and state the general purposes for teaching each topic. 2 Enumerate the important characteristics of the target learners. 3 Specify the learning objectives as measurable outcomes of the learners. 4 List the subject content which supports each objective. 5 Develop pre-assessment to determine learners’ background and existing knowledge about the topic. 6 Select teaching-learning activities and instructional resources which lead the learners to accomplish the objectives through the subject content. 7 Coordinate support services such as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules to perform the instructional design plan. 8 Evaluate learners’ achievement as accomplishment of objectives, and then revise and reevaluate any phases of the plan that need improvement. The relationship between each elementstep is illustrated as Figure 1. Figure 1: Kemp’s Model: the relationship of each step in the plan to the other step Kemp, 1977: 9 Revise Goals, Topics, General Purposes Evaluation Support Services Teaching-learning Activities, Resources Learner Characteristics Learning Objectives Subject Content Pre- assessment The process in this model is flexible. Its elements are interdependent. Therefore, a researcher may start with whichever step he is ready to start, and then move back and forth to the other steps. However, the plan for one step may affect the plan in another step; what is done in one step influences the later step. b. Instructional Design Model by Yalden Yalden 1987: 88 proposes some stages in language program development which are constructed as follows: 1 Conducting need survey 2 Clarifying the purpose of language program based on need analysis. 3 Selecting a type of syllabus to be used in the program. 4 Describing the content of the syllabus, including general notion and specific topics, communicative functions and events, and also grammar and lexis. 5 Providing a repertoire of words and phrases based on the functions and topics. 6 Developing and implementing the language program in the classroom the selection of materials, exercises, techniques and the preparation of lesson unit plan. 7 Evaluating the whole components in the language program, involving the students, the instructional program, and the teaching. 8 Fitting the goals with the final performance of the learners or evaluating the program. Yalden illustrates those stages into Figure 2. Figure 2: Yalden’s Model: Language Program Development Yalden, 1987: 88 This model provides a clear order for every element to be followed. Nevertheless, the elements of proto and pedagogical syllabuses production are not significant since they have been represented by the selection and development of a syllabus type. Richards 1990: 15 states that an effective instructional material has some characteristics: 1 it maintains students’ interests, 2 it is appropriate to students’ need and background, 3 it provides examples of how language is used, 4 it provides meaningful activities for students, and 5 it provides communicative and authentic language use. Referring to those characteristics, the researcher adopts some steps of design models of Kemp and Yalden to be the procedure in conducting this study. Those steps are need survey, goals description, materials design and development, evaluation, and revision.

2. Grammar