ment of
27
theoretical purpose of error analysis is to present insight into process of acquiring learner’s language.
30
The most typical use of the analysis of the error is the teachers. It is designing pedagogical material and strategies. Dullay states that studying
students’ errors serves two major purposes: a. It provides data from which inferences about the nature of the language
learning process can be made. b. It indicates to teachers and curriculum developers which part of the target
language students have most difficulty producing correctly and which errors types detract most from a learner’s ability to communicate effectively.
According to Fisiak, there are four goals of error analysis, they are: 1. Determining the sequence of presentation of target item in text book and
classroom, with the difficult item following the easier one; 2. Deciding the relatives degree of emphasis, explanation and practice require and
putting across various items in the target language; 3. Devising remedial lesson and exercise;
4. Selecting items for testing the learners’ proficiency.
C. Grammar 1. Understanding of Grammar
Penny Ur notes that “Grammar is defined as words are put together to make correct sentences it does not only affect how the units of words are
combined in order to make correct sentences but also affects their meaning.”
31
According to Thornburry “Grammar is partly the study of what forms or structure are possible in language. Traditionally, grammar has been concerned
almost exclusively with analysis at the level of the sentence formed rules that govern how a language’s sentences are formed.”
32
In conclusion, grammar is a
30
Jack Fisiak, Contrastive Linguistics and the Language Teacher, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981, p. 225.
31
Penny Ur, A Course in Language Teaching Practice and Theory, London: Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 75.
32
Scott Thornburry, How to Teach Grammar, London: Longman, 1999, p. 1.
field of linguistic that involves all the various things that make up the rules of language.
2. Types of Grammar
Grammar may be separated into two common broad categories: descriptive and prescriptive. Both views of grammar are in wide use, although in general,
linguists tend towards a descriptive approach to grammar, while people are teaching a specific language; English, might tend towards a more perspective
approach.
33
David Crystal lists six types of grammar: descriptive grammar, pedagogical grammar, perspective grammar, reference grammar, theoretical
grammar, and traditional grammar.
34
Kathryn Riley and Frank Parker state that there are four types of grammar; perspective grammar is primarily interested in constructing rules of usage for the
prestige variety of a language, descriptive grammar is primarily interested in describing the basic sentence patterns of all varieties of a language. Then,
generative grammar is primarily interested in discovering those principles of sentence formation that are part of the human biological endowment; performance
grammar is primarily interested in the effects of context and real-time limitations on language use.
35
In the writer’s opinion, grammar can be divided into two main points; descriptive and perspective grammar that can be broken down again into many
different points with different point of views.
33
http:www.answers.comtopicgrammar , 8 Desember 20012.
34
http:www.IIp.armstrong.edu5800types.html . 8 Desember 2012.
35
Kathryn Riley and Frank Parker, English Grammar: Perspective, Descriptive, Generative, Performance, Boston: A Pearson Education Company, 1998, p. 3.
D. Reported Speech 1. Understanding of Reported Speech
Reported speech refers to reproducing the idea of another person’s words. Not all of the exact words are used: verb forms and pronoun may change.
36
It means, if we report what another person has said, we usually do not use the
speaker’s exact words direct speech, but reported speech indirect speech. Therefore, it needs to learn how to transform direct into indirect speech. The
structure is a little different depending on whether you want to transform a statement, question or request.
Michael Swan stated in Practical English Usage that reported speech was to quote somebody’s words or thoughts without quoting the exact words that had
been used and connected it more closely to our own sentence.
37
Moreover, Thompson and Martinet state in A Practical English Grammar, “In indirect
speech we give the exact meaning of a remark or a speech, without necessarily using the speaker’s exact words.”
38
It means reported speech is the form we use to speak about what others tell us. It is quite common to tell others what someone
else has told you. It can be known from several definitions about that reported speech is to
quote somebody’s idea or thoughts without exactly repeating the exact word produced by the speaker.
36
Betty Schrampfer Azar, Fundamental of English Grammar, UK: Prentice Hall, 1992, 2
nd
ed, p. 366.
37
Michael Swam, Practical English Usage, Oxford University Press, 1980, p. 533.
38
A.J. Thompson and A.V. Martinet, A Practical English Usage, New York: Oxford University Press, 1986, 4
th
ed, p. 269.
2. Kinds of Reported Speech
When one wishes to report what someone else says or has said thinks or has thought or what one said or thought on a previous occasion oneself; two ways
are open to one, either to give the exact words: direct speech, or to adapt the words according to the circumstances in which they are new quoted: indirect
speech.
39
In other word, there are two main ways of reporting people’s words, thoughts, and beliefs:
a. Direct Speech
It may be given the exact words more or less that were said, or imagine that were thought. This kind of structure is called “direct speech”.
Direct speech conveys exactly what someone has said, often to dramatize and to create sense immediacy. It is found in newspaper reports, fiction, and oral
narratives
40
. Example:
So he said, ‘I want to go home,’ and just walked out.
Did she say, ‘What do you want?’
41
It uses quotation marks when it quotes direct speech. Single quotation marks ‘...’ are more common in British English, and double quotation marks
“...” in American English. In direct speech, usually the words quoted are introduced by one of
the words say or think, put before the quotation. In writing, quotation marks
‘...’ or “...” are used. In literary writing, a large number of other verbs are used to add variety and to give additional information; for example; ask,
exclaim, suggest, reply, cry, reflect, suppose, grunt, snarl, hiss, and whisper. b. Indirect Speech
It can be made a speaker’s words or thoughts part of his sentence, using conjunction e.g that, and changing pronouns, tenses and other words
39
Otto Jespersen, Essential English Grammar, London: George Allen Unwin Ltd Publisher, 1954, p.260.
40
Martin Parrot, Grammar for English Language Teacher, London: Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 217.
41
Michael Swam, Practical English Usage, Oxford University Press, 1995, p. 500.
where necessary. This kind of structure is called ‘indirect speech’ or ‘reported speech’
Example:
So he said that he wanted to go home, and just walked out. Did she just ask what I wanted?
Commas are not put before that, what, where, etc in indirect speech structures.
Example:
Everybody realised that I was a foreigner.
NOT Everybody realised that,.... Reported speech is used when it is interested not in the words that
someone has chosen, but in the essential information they conveyed. It is often used far fewer words to report this than were originally spoken. Reported speech
is found in newspaper reports, fiction, talking, or writing about conversation, reports, articles or speeches that have been heard or read.
42
In reported speech, the tenses, word-order, pronouns and other words may be different from those in the original sentence.
Example:
Direct speech Reported speech
He said, ‘I am going home.’ He said he was going home.
‘Is it raining?’ He asked if it was raining
He said ‘I love you.’ He said he loved me.
43
To indicate that it is quoting or reporting what someone has said or thought is by using a reporting verb. Every reporting clause contains a reporting
verb.
44
The most neutral and most common verbs to use to introduce what are reported are say and tell, and choosing between these verbs often poses a problem
to learners. Say is never followed by an indirect object e.g. him, us, them, my sister, whereas it has to use an indirect object after tell. It is better to choose to
tell when to draw attention specifically to the person who is being addressed.
42
Martin Parrot, loc. cit.
43
Michael Swan, op. cit., pp.533—534.
44
John Sinclair, Collins Cobuild Grammar, London: Harper Collins, 1990, p. 314.
