Causes of Error Error 1. Understanding of Error

where necessary. This kind of structure is called ‘indirect speech’ or ‘reported speech’ Example: So he said that he wanted to go home, and just walked out. Did she just ask what I wanted? Commas are not put before that, what, where, etc in indirect speech structures. Example: Everybody realised that I was a foreigner. NOT Everybody realised that,.... Reported speech is used when it is interested not in the words that someone has chosen, but in the essential information they conveyed. It is often used far fewer words to report this than were originally spoken. Reported speech is found in newspaper reports, fiction, talking, or writing about conversation, reports, articles or speeches that have been heard or read. 42 In reported speech, the tenses, word-order, pronouns and other words may be different from those in the original sentence. Example: Direct speech Reported speech He said, ‘I am going home.’ He said he was going home. ‘Is it raining?’ He asked if it was raining He said ‘I love you.’ He said he loved me. 43 To indicate that it is quoting or reporting what someone has said or thought is by using a reporting verb. Every reporting clause contains a reporting verb. 44 The most neutral and most common verbs to use to introduce what are reported are say and tell, and choosing between these verbs often poses a problem to learners. Say is never followed by an indirect object e.g. him, us, them, my sister, whereas it has to use an indirect object after tell. It is better to choose to tell when to draw attention specifically to the person who is being addressed. 42 Martin Parrot, loc. cit. 43 Michael Swan, op. cit., pp.533—534. 44 John Sinclair, Collins Cobuild Grammar, London: Harper Collins, 1990, p. 314. Example: He said that he was ill. He told me that he was ill. 45 Here is a list of reporting verbs which can be used to report what people say: 46 Table 2.2 The List of Reporting Verbs Acknowledge Add Admit Advise Agree Announce Answer Argue Ask Assert Assure Beg Begin Boast Call Complain Concede Confess Confirm Continue Convince Cry Declare Demand Deny Describe Direct Discuss Dispute Enquire Explain Imply Inform Inquire Insists Instruct Invite Maintain Mention Mumble Murmur Mutter Note Notify Object observe Order Predict Proclaim Promise Prophesy Propose Reassure Recall Recite Recomm end Record Refuse Remark Remind Repeat Reply Report Request Say Scream Shout Shriek State Stipulate Suggest Swear Teach Tell Threaten Urge Vow Wail Warn Yell The following table is some common changes in expression of time in indirect speech: 47 Table 2.3 The Common Changes of Expression Time Direct Speech Indirect Speech Today That day Yesterday The day before The day before yesterday Two days before Tomorrow The next daythe following day 45 Martin Parrot, op. cit., pp. 217—218. 46 Sinclair, op. cit., p. 315. 47 A.J. Thomson A.V. Martinet, op. cit., pp. 274—275. dge de dict day day The day after tomorrow In two days’ time Next weekyear, etc. The following weekyear, etc. Last weekyear, etc. The previous weekyear, etc. A year, ago, etc. A year before the previous year But if the speech is made and reported on the same day these time changes are not necessary. Example: At breakfast this morning he said, ‘I’ll be very busy today’ At breakfast this morning he said that he would be very busy today.

3. The Transformational Rules from Direct Question into Indirect Question

Reported question is used when people want to relate a question that someone has asked. 48 As well as reporting what someone says or thinks, it can be also reported a question that one asks or wonders about. John Sinclair states in Collins Cobuild Grammar, “Questions in report structures are sometimes called reported question or indirect questions. There two main types of report structure for questions. One type of questions is called a ‘yesno’ question. These are questions which can be answered simply with ‘yes’ or ‘no’. The other type of question is called a ‘wh’-question. These are questions in which someone asks for for information about an event or situation. ‘Wh’- questions cannot be answered with ‘yes’ or ‘no’. 49 The most common verbs for reporting questions are ask and want to know. Ones also use inquiry for formal question and wonder for ask oneself. 50 When one reports a ‘yesno’ questions, heshe uses an ‘if’-clause beginning with the conjunction ‘if’, or a ‘whether’-clause beginning with the conjunction ‘whether’. ‘If’ uses when the speaker has suggested one possibility 48 http:.www.bbc.co.uk 25 april 2010. 49 John Sinclair, op. cit., pp. 322—323. 50 Mark Folley Diane Hall, Longman advanced learner’s Grammar, Pearson Education Limited : 2003, p. 114. that may be true. Meanwhile, ‘whether’ uses when the speaker has suggested one possibility but has left open the question of other possibilities. 51 On the other hand, when one reports a ‘wh’ question, heshe uses a ‘wh’ word at the beginning of the reported clause. There are a few verbs which can be used before clauses beginning with ‘wh’ words, because they refer to knowing, learning, or mentioning one of the circumstances of an event or situation. Here is a list of verbs which can be used before clauses beginning with ‘wh’- words: 52 Table 2.4 The Verbs Used before Clauses Beginning ‘WH’- Words Decide Forget Realize Suggesst Describe Guess Remember Teach Discover Imagine Say Tell Discuss Know See Think explain Learn Wonder Understand And the following are the form of grammar rules for reported question: 1 Normal word order is used in reported questions, that is, the subject comes before the verb, and it is not necessary to use do or did: Example: “Where does Peter live?” She asked him where Peter lived. 2 Yes no questions: This type of question is reported by using ask + if whether + clause: Example: Do you speak English? He asked me if I spoke English. Are you British or American? He asked me whether I was British or American. 51 John Sinclair, loc. cit. 52 Ibid.