Direct Speech Kinds of Reported Speech

1 Development error Development error is error similar to those made by children learning the target language as their first language. E.g., “Mary eat the pineapple.” 2 Inter lingual error Inter lingual error is an error similar in structure to a semantically equivalent phrase or sentence in learner’s native language. 3 Ambiguous error Ambiguous error is error that reflects the learner’s native language structure. This error could be classified equally as development or inter lingual error. E.g., “I no go to school.” 4 Other error Other error is error that caused by the learner’s native language since the learner used it on their second language form. E.g., “She do hungry.” d. Error based on communicative effect taxonomy Instead of focusing on aspect of the error themselves, the communicative effect taxonomy concerned with the error from the perspective of their effect on the listener or reader. The focuses are on distinguishing errors that seem to cause miscommunication from those that do not. Error based on communicative effect taxonomy is divided into two parts. 1 Global error Global error hinders communication; it prevents the learners from comprehending some aspect of messages. For instance, “we amused that movie very much.” 2 Local error Local error itself does not interfere with understanding of an utterance, usually because there is only a minor violation of one segment of a sentence. “I angry” will be local error since the meaning is apparent. According to Ellis in Corder, error fall into four categories, they are omission of some required element; addition of some unnecessary or incorrect element; selection of an incorrect element, and misordering of the elements. Nevertheless, Corder himself adds that this classification is not enough to describe errors. That is why includes the linguistics level of errors under the sub-areas of morphology, syntax, and lexicon. 10 Ellis maintains that “classifying errors in these ways can help us to diagnose learners’ learning problems at any stage of their development and to plot how changes in error patterns occur overtime.” This categorization can be exemplified as follows: Omission: Morphological omission A strange thing happen to me yesterday Syntactical omission Must say also the names? Addition: In morphology The books is here In syntax The London In lexicon I stayed there during five years ago Selection: In morphology My friend is oldest than me In syntax I want that he comes here. Ordering: In pronunciation fignisicant for ‘significant’; prulal for ‘prular’ In morphology get upping for ‘getting up’ In syntax he is a dear to me friend. 11 As mentioned by some experts above, there are many types of error according to them. The writer decides that the errors generally made by the 10 Rod Ellis, Second Language Acquisition, New York: Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 51. 11 Vecide Erdogan, “Contribution of Error Analysis to Foreign Language Teaching.” Journal of the Faculty of Education in Mercin University, Vol. 1, Issue 2, December 2005, p. 264. students based on Ellis’ classifications which are: omission, addition, selection and misordering.

3. Causes of Error

According to Richards, he distinguishes the types of error into four causes, they are: a. Over-generalization Over generalization is the use of previously learned rules in new situation. Over generalization includes instance where the learner makes a rule on the basis of his experience of other rule in the target language. For example: Do you go to Bali last Year? The correct one is: Did you go to Bali last year? b. Ignorance of rule restriction This type of errors is the result of the failure to observe the restrictions of existing structure, that is, the application rules to context where they do not apply. For example: The man who I saw him yesterday is my teacher. The correct one is: The man whom I saw yesterday is my teacher. c. Incomplete application of rules This error is the result of the learner’s high motivation to achieve communicative ability. In achieving this, learner sometimes produces grammatical incorrect sentence. For example: She go to school every day The correct one is: She goes to school every day. d. False concept hypothesized This error is the result of the faulty comprehension of distinction in the foreign language, sometimes this error is because of the poor gradation of materials of teaching. 12 12 Jack C Richards. Error Analysis Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition. London: Longman group limited, 1985, pp. 174 – 178. According to Brown there are four causes of errors, they are: a. Interlingual Transfer Interlingual transfer occurs because the interference of a mother tongue into a target language. Interlingual transfer is significant source of error for all learners. The beginning stage of learning a second language is especially vulnerable to interlingual transfer from the native language. For example: - I miss he for I miss him b. Intralingual Transfer Intralingual transfer is a major factor in second language learning. The early stage of language learning is characterized by a predominance of interference interlingual transfer, but once learners have begun to acquire part of the new system, more intralingual transfer-generalization within the target language is manifested. Negative intralingual transfer, or overgeneralization has already been illustrated in such utterances as “he good.” c. Context of Learning Context refers to the classroom with its teacher and its material in the case of school learning. In a classroom context, the teacher pr the textbook can lead the learner to make faulty hypotheses about the language. Students often make errors because of a misleading from the teacher, faulty presentation of a structure or word in textbook. d. Communication of Strategies Communication strategies were defined and related to learning style. Learners obviously use production strategies in order to enhance getting their message across but at times, these techniques can themselves become a source of error. In other hand, Ellis mentions three sources of error which are known by error of omission, overgeneralization error and transfer error. 13 1 Error of Omission. For example, learners leave out the article ‘a’ and ‘the’ and leave the –s of plural nouns. 13 Brown, op.cit., 2007., p. 223.