e. The Definition of Speaking
Cameron 2001: 40 mentions that speaking is the active use of language to express meanings so that other people can make sense of them.
To speak in the foreign language in order to share understandings with other people requires attention to precise details of the language. A speaker needs
to find most appropriate words and the correct grammar to convey meaning accurately and precisely, and needs to organize the discourse so that a listener
will understand. Brown 2004: 140 defines speaking as a productive skill that can be
directly and empirically observed, those observations are invariably colored by the accuracy and effectiveness of a test-taker’s listening skill, which
necessarily compromises the reliability and validity of an oral production test. Speaking can be summarized as an activity of producing sounds to express
ideas, feelings or thoughts using appropriate words and correct grammar.
f. Functions of Speaking
Numerous efforts have been done by experts to classify the functions of speaking. Richard 2008: 21-28 classified the functions into three groups
which are talk as interaction, talk as transaction and talk as performance. 1 Talk as interaction
Talk as interaction describes interaction that serves a primary social function. The focus is more on the speakers and how they wish to present
themselves to each other than on the message. Some of skills involved in using talk as interaction involve knowing how to do the following things:
opening and closing conversation, choosing topics, making small-talk, joking, recounting turn-taking, and interrupting.
2 Talk as transaction Talk as transaction refers to situations where the focus is on what is
said or done. The message and making oneself understood is clearly and accurately is the central focus. Burns 1998 in Richard 2008: 26
distinguishes between two different types of talk as transaction. The first type involves situations where the focus is on giving and receiving information.
The second type is transactions that focus on obtaining goods or services. Some skills involved in using talk for transactions are: explaining a need,
asking clarification, confirming information, and agreeing and disagreeing. 3 Talk as performance
Talk as performance refers to public talk, that is, a talk that transmits information before an audience. It tends to be in the form of monolog rather
than dialog, often follows a recognizable format and is closer to written language than conversational language. Some skills involved in using talk as
performance are: using an appropriate format, maintaining audience engagement, and presenting information in an appropriate sequence.
g. Guidance in Preparing Speaking Activities
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