symbolization to the foreign language. The other possibility is when the symbol in one word that represents one sound turns out to represent a
different sound in another word. e. Pronunciation problems with words that show similarity in two languages.
Since words having similarity in the form in two languages show patterns of correspondences between the foreign language and the native one, the
student’s mispronunciations will often be predictable in terms of those patterns.
f. Unpredictable alternation between two potential substitutions. The Indonesian
language lacks the phoneme [ θ] that might approximate English [θ] as in
think. The result is that Indonesian learners may substitute it with [s] or [t].
The reason for this is that the individual tends to transfer the sound system of his mother tongue.
3. Description and Classification of English Speech Sounds
According to Indriani 2005:8, the English speech sounds can be classified into consonants, vowels, and diphthongs.
a. Consonants
A consonant is a type of sounds used before or after a vowel or diphthong to form a syllable. According to O’grady 2001:7, there is constriction or complete
closure in the vocal tract, which might be at the lips, at the back of the mouth and on the teeth, that interferes the flow air out the mouth when producing the
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consonant sounds. According to Indriani 2005:8, there are 24 consonants in English, namely:
Table 2.1. English consonantal articulation Consonant Word
P Pig b Book
T Tea d Day
K Key G Go
F Fine V Very
S Sea Z Zoo
ʃ
She ʒ
Azure Consonant word
ʧ chair
ʤ jail
θ thin ð this
m man n now
ŋ sing h how
l like r right
w wait j you
In relation to the position of the vocal cords, the consonants can be divided into: 1. Voiceless : p, t, k, f, s,
ʃ, ʧ
, θ, h.
2. Voiced : the rest of the consonants. In terms of the placepoint of articulation, the consonants can be divided into:
1. Bilabial : the two lips are the primary articulators, e.g: b, p, m, w. 2. Labio-dental : the lower lip articulates with the upper teeth, e.g.: f, v.
3. Dental : the tongue tip and rims articulate with the upper teeth, e.g.: θ, ð.
4. Alveolar : the blade, or tip and blade, of the tongue articulate with the alveolar ridge, e.g.: t, d, l, n, s, z.
5. Post-alveolar : the tip and rims of the tongue articulate with the rear part of the alveolar ridge, e.g.: r.
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6.
Palato-alveolar : the blade or the tip and blade of the tongue articulate with
the alveolar ridge and there is at the same time a raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate, e.g.:
ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ.
7. Palatal : the front of the tongue articulates with the hard palate, e.g.:j. 8. Velar : the back of the tongue articulates with the soft palate, e.g.: k, g,
ŋ 9. Glottal : an obstruction, or a narrowing causing friction but not vibration,
between the vocal cords, e.g.: h. In terms of the manner of articulation, the consonants can be divided into:
1. Complete Closure: Plosive: a complete closure at some point in the vocal tract, behind which the
air pressure builds up and is released explosively, e.g.: p, b, t, d, k, g.
2.
Affricate: a complete closure at some point in the mouth, behind which the air pressure builds up; the separation of the organs is slow compared with that of a
plosive, so that friction is a characteristic second element of the sound, e.g.:
ʧ, ʤ.
3. Nasal : a complete closure at some point in the mouth but the soft palate being lowered the air escapes through the nose, e.g.: m, n,
ŋ. 4. Intermittent Closure:
Roll : a series of rapid intermittent closures or taps made by a flexible organ on a firmer surface, e.g.: r
5. Partial Closure: Lateral: a partial closure is made at some point in the mouth, the air stream being
allowed to escape on one or both sides of the contact, e.g. l.
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6. Narrowing: Fricative: two organs approximate to such an extent that the air stream passes
through them with friction, e.g.: f, v, ʃ, ʒ, s, z, θ, ð, h.
7. Glides: Semi-vowel: they are usually included in the consonantal category on
functional grounds, but from the point of view of phonetic description they are more properly treated as vowel glides, e.g.: w, j.
b. Vowels
