Figure 2.2: Yalden’s Instructional Design Model Yalden, 1987: 88
Here, the writer used needs analysis in order to get the learner’s need and interest. The writer combined the two models into a new model, then it is used by
the writer in constructing an instructional design.
2. Reading
This study is going to design an integrated reading and writing materials in which the writer gives more emphasis on reading comprehension and writing as
the follow-up activities. Pearson and Johnson as cited by Nunan 1991:67 consider comprehension as “a process of relating the new to the known is based
on a similar notion.” It refers to the fact that the readers relate what he is reading and the prior knowledge of the readers in mind. Comprehending the message from
the writer is the meaning of reading itself. If someone reads without comprehension, he merely recognizes and decodes the words without getting the
meaning of the passage Griscoe and Gee, 1984:24. Cushenberry 1988:10 states that there are four basic levels of reading
comprehension: 1 Literal Reading
In this level the readers recognize the main ideas, the details and find out the cause and effect, which are stated explicitly.
Needs Survey
Descrip tion of
Purpose Selection
Develop- ment of
Syllabus Produc-
tion of a Proto-
Syllabus Produc-
tion of Pedagogi-
cal Syllabus
Develop- ment
Implemen tation of
Classroom Procedure
s Evalua-
tion
2 Interpretative Reading For this level, the readers try to be able to recognize the main ideas, the
details and find out the cause and effect, which are stated implicitly. 3 Critical Reading
Differ from the previous two levels, this level of comprehension expects the readers to be able to state whether a statement is an opinion or a fact.
4 Creative reading This reading is presented in a form of problem solving reading.
This study focuses more on reading comprehension, especially in literal reading, interpretative reading and also in critical reading as the additional, since
in the writer’s point of view; students’ reading proficiency is still very low whereas the demand is quite high. This study will also integrate reading and
writing. Therefore, the next is the discussion of basic theories of writing.
3. Writing
Writing is the same as speaking in terms of the means of communication to other people. Through writing and speaking people try to express their own
ideas and feeling towards something. However, writing itself is slightly different from speaking. In writing we use the written symbols to transfer or express our
ideas and feeling. Despite that there are some factors that make writing and speaking are different:
1. Physiological factors Writing does not have clear contextual situation and the real audience.
Therefore, the writer should present the situation clearly to the reader. In order to
present a clear context to the reader the writer needs to consider the reader’s perception and expectation. Meaning to say the writer considers himself as the
readers creates an imagination of what probably the reader thinks and the reader’s perception when the readers read the writing. Besides, the writer also needs to
choose the words, the style of writing, structures of the next carefully in order to help the readers have the same perception with the writer and obtain the messages
of the writing. 2. Linguistic Factors
In writing, the writer should arrange the sentences and develop them in order to convey the messages to the readers. Therefore the writer has to make sure
whether the text itself is already one unity of ideas or the text is still not well developed. The writer is expected to compose the sentences coherently and
cohesively so the reader can easily get the meaning and the messages from the text.
3. Cognitive Factors Different from speaking, writing is not actually acquired by the people.
Consequently, writing itself needs to be learned and the writer needs to recall the previous knowledge. Recalling the prior knowledge can be done through
speaking, furthermore the writer can also pay attention to how to organize the sentences to make the text coherent. In addition acquiring the writing competency
is not as quickly as acquiring reading competency. Writing acquisition happens after people acquire speaking. This even makes the L2 learners more frustrated
since they have not acquired L2, whereas, when the learners start to write they tend to translate fromL1 to L2.
This study will design instructional materials, which integrate reading with writing. Reading is seen as the receptive skill, which needs the continuation. On
the other hand, writing is a productive skill and the writer needs stimuli in order to be able to write. As the result of this consideration, the writer is going to design
materials in which the materials will focus on the reading comprehension and later on the comprehension itself will be used as the stimuli for writing. However, in
order to make a good and valid design, the writer needs to find out the theories of integrating reading and writing.
4. The integration of Reading and Writing
