Commissives Expressives Declarations Illocutionary Classification

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2. Directives

Directives are those kinds of speech acts that represent attempts by the speaker to get the addressee to do something. They express the speaker’s desire wish for the addressee to do something. In using a directive, the speaker intends to elicit some future course of action on the part of the addressee, thus making the world match the words via the addressee. Paradigmatic cases include: 1. Inviting: a friendly request to someone to go somewhere or to do something. 2. Commanding: to make somebody what they must to do 3. Ordering: to tell somebody to do something. Ordering is more polite than commanding 4. Requesting: to act politely asking for something 5. Suggesting: to put an idea to someone’s mind Example: • Let me said this publicly requesting • We can do this for our country ordering • Go there commanding

3. Commissives

Commisives are those kinds of speech acts that commit the speaker to some future course of action. They express the speaker’s intention to do something. In the case of a commissive, the world is adapted to the words via the speaker himherself. Paradigmatic cases include: Universitas Sumatera Utara 12 1. Hoping: a demand something to happen or to do something 2. Refusing: to show that one is disagree or unwilling to give, accept or do something 3. Promising: a spoken that one will definitely gve or do or not do something 4. Offering: to show willingness to do or give something Examples: • No, Thank you refusing • I’ll make this country great promising • That’s the furute that we hope hoping

4. Expressives

Expressives are those kinds of speech acts that express a psychological attitude or state of the speaker such as joy, sorrow, and likesdislikes. There is no direction of fit for this type of speech act. Paradigmatic cases include: 1. Congratulating: to express about praise or something that somebody get 2. Complimenting: an expression of praise, admiration, approval, etc 3. Thanking: to express gratitude to somebody 4. Believing: to express belief about something or somebody Examples: • I believe in you believing • Thank you thanking • You are best women complement Universitas Sumatera Utara 13

5. Declarations

Declarations or declaratives are those kinds of speech acts that effect immediate changes in some current state of affairs. Because they tend to rely on elaborate extralinguistic institutions for their successful performance, they may be called institutionalized performatives. In performing this type of speech act, the speaker brings about changes in the world; that is, he or she effects a correspondence between the propositional content and the world. Paradigmatic cases include officially opening a bridge, declaring war, excommunicating, firing from employment, and nominating a candidate. As to the direction of fit, it is both words- to-world and world-to-words. I now pronounce you husband and wife declaring I name my baby “Dila” naming To more understanding about the similarities and differences between the speech act categories that we have been discussing will show in this table below based on the relation between ‘words’ and ‘world’. Peccei, 1999: 53 Speech Acts Category Relation Between ‘The Words’ and ‘The World’ Who is Responsible for The Relation Representatives The words fit the world ‘outside’ world Speaker Directives The world will fit the words Hearer Universitas Sumatera Utara 14 Expressives The words fit the world physiological world Speaker Commisives The world will fit the words Speaker Declarations The words change the world Speaker After the table above, there is also a table which describe how the direct interretation comes from other linguistic features of the utterance which we recognize as typical linguistic expressions of speech acts. Peccei, 1999: 54 Speech Acts Category Typical Expression Example Representatives Declarative structure Tom’s eating grapes. Directives Imperative sentence Si down Expressives Declarative structure with words referring to feelings I’m sorry to hear that. Commisives Declarative structure with speaker subject and future time expressed I’ll call you tonight. Declaratives Declarative structure with speaker as subject and a performative verb in simple present tense We find the defendant guilty. I resign. Universitas Sumatera Utara 15

2.2.3 Perlocutionary Act