Theoretical Description REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Theoretical Description

1. Reading a. Definition of Reading Reading is a process whereby one looks and understands what has been written Williams, 1996: 2. It means that reading is a process of obtaining meaning from written text. Reading is what hap pens when people look at a text and assign meaning to the written symbols in that text. Reading means reacting to a written text as a piece of communication Wallace, 1996: 4. M eanwhile, Davies 1995: 1 states that reading is private. It is a mental, or cognitive, process which involves a reader in trying to follow and respond to a message from a writer who is distant in space and time. Because of this privacy, the process of reading and responding to a writer is not directly observable. Reading is the p rocess of perceiving and deriving meaning from what has been written Spolsky, 1999: 653. Reading is the process of combining textual information with the information a reader brings to a text. In this view, the reading process is not simply a matter of extracting information from the text. Rather, it is one in which the reading activates a range of knowledge in the reader’s mind that he or she uses, and that, in turn, may be refined and extended by the new information supplied by the text. Reading is thus viewed as a kind of dialogue between the reader and the text Widdowson in Carrell, et al., 1996: 56. Reading is the way to get meaning a message from a text Nuttal, 1996: 4 and 7. It means getting out of the text as nearly as possible the message the writer puts into it. The kinds of assumption one makes about the world depend on what heshe has got from hisher experiences. A useful way of thinking about this is provided by schema theory. The schema is a useful concept in understanding how to interpret texts. The purpose of reading is 8 9 actually grasping the meaning the message out from the text. One can do it if heshe has schemata, the knowledge heshe has got from hisher experiences. The success of interpretation depends on whether hisher schemata are sufficiently similar to the writers’ or not. But the important thing here is that the schemata are very useful to help himher to understand and interpret the text adequately. Reading is comprised of word recognition and linguistic comprehension Catts and Kamhi, 2005: 25. The word recognition component translates print into linguistic from, and the comprehension component makes sense of the linguistic information. The process of recognizing printed words is called as decoding. M eanwhile, the process of understanding the message that the print convey is called as comprehension. Therefore, reading involves the reader, the text, and the interaction between reader and text. The text and the reader are the two physical entities necessary for the reading process to begin. It is, however, the interaction between the text and the reader that constitutes actual reading. Reading is an interactive process, sociolinguistic process, involving a text, a reader, and a social context within which the act ivity of reading takes place Bernhardt in Celce-M urcia, 2001: 154. In reading, an individual constructs meaning through a transaction with written text that has been created by symbols that represent language. The transaction involves the reader’s acting on or interpreting the text, and the interpretation is influenced the reader’s past experience, language background, and cultural framework, as well as the reader’s purpose for reading. b. What M akes a Reading Text Easy or Difficult Generally, reading texts are easier if: 1 They contain simple language-the structures and vocabulary familiar to the students 2 They are short 3 They contain short, simple sentences 10 4 They are clearly organized 5 They are factual 6 They are in standard English 7 The topic is concrete and familiar 8 There is support in the way of layout, titles, pictures, graphs, etc. Gower, et al., 1995: 95 c. Ways of Reading Grellet 1998: 4 mentions the main ways of reading, as follows: 1 Skimming: quickly running one’s eyes over a text to get the gist for it. 2 Scanning: quickly going through a text to find a particular piece of information. 3 Intensive reading: reading shorter texts, to extract specific information. This is more an accuracy activity involving reading for detail. 4 Extensive reading: reading longer texts, usually for one’s own pleasure. This is a fluency activity, mainly involving global understanding. Extensive reading is the practice of reading large amounts of text for extended periods of time Celce-M urcia, 2001: 198. Extensive reading may play a role in developing the capacity for critical thinking M ikulecky and Jeffries, 2007: 3. d. M odels of Reading There are three main models of how reading occurs Aebersold and Field, 2000: 18 as follows: 1 Bottom-up Reading is viewed as a process of decoding written symbols, working from smaller units individual letters to larger ones words, clauses, and sentences Nunan, 1998: 33. In other words, we use strategies to decode written forms in order to arrive at meaning. 11 2 Top-down Top-down theory argues that readers bring a great deal of knowledge, expectations, assumptions, and questions to the text and, given a basic understanding of the vocabulary, they continue to read as long as the text confirms their expectations Goodman in Aebersold and Field, 2000: 18. 3 Interactive The interactive theories describe a process that moves both bottom-up and top- down, depending on the type of the text as well as on the reader’s background knowledge, language proficiency level, motivation, strategy use, and culturally shaped beliefs about reading. e. Purposes for Reading In general, there are two reasons for reading as stated by Grellet 1998: 4, namely: reading for pleasure and reading for information in order to find out something or in order to do something with the information the reader gets. Celce-M urcia 2001: 187 mentions four purposes of reading, as follows: 1 To search for information 2 For general comprehension 3 To learn new information 4 To synthesize and evaluate information f. Types of Reading Task There are four types of reading tasks which have been identified from the perspective of reading purpose Enright, et al. in Qian, 2002: 519, as follows: 1 Reading to find information or search reading. Reading to find information involves locating factual information in a text or a nonprose document Guthrie in Qian, 2002: 519 and is the most straightforward type of task among the four. 12 2 Reading for basic comprehension. Reading for basic comprehension generally refers to comprehending a subset of individual ideas mostly related to the thematic content or the main idea of the text Enright in Qian, 2002: 519. 3 Reading to learn. Reading to learn involves the processing of more complex information, such as causal relationships, comparisons and contrasts, and intentions Carver in Qian, 2002: 519. This type of task requires the reader to reconstruct a coherent mental representation of the text based on the various types of information the reader has found. 4 Reading to integrate information across multiple texts. Reading to integrate information is the most challenging among the four types. This type of task requires the reader to integrate information from multiple sources, which may include prose, diagrams, charts, or other forms of presentation Goldman in Qian, 2002: 519. g. Component Skills and Content Areas of Reading Within the complex process of reading, six general component skills and content areas of reading have been identified. They are as follows: 1 Automatic recognition skills: a virtually unconscious ability, ideally requiring little mental processing to recognize text, especially for word identification. 2 Vocabulary and structural knowledge: sound understanding of language structure and a large recognition vocabulary. 3 Formal discourse structure knowledge: an understanding of how texts are organized and how information is put together into various genres of text. 4 Contentword background knowledge: prior knowledge of text-related information and a shared understanding of the cultural information involved in text. 5 Synthesis and evaluation skillsstrategies: the ability to read and compare information from multiple sources, to think critically about what one 13 reads, and to decide what information is relevant or useful for one’s purpose. 6 M etacognitive knowledge and skills monitoring: an awareness of one’s mental processes and the ability to reflect on what one is doing and the strategies one is employing while reading. Celce-M urcia, 2001: 154 h. Fluent Readers Good readers typically do all of the following: 1 Read rapidly for comprehension. 2 Recognize words rapidly and automatically without seeming to pay any attention to them. 3 Draw on a very large vocabulary store. 4 Integrate text information with their own knowledge. 5 Recognize the purposes for reading. 6 Comprehend the text as necessary. 7 Shift purpose to read strategically. 8 Use strategies to monitor comprehension. 9 Recognize and repair miscomprehension. 10 Read critically and evaluate information. Grabe and Stoller in Celce-M urcia, 2002: 188. i. M icro Skills for Reading Brown 2001: 307 proposes fourteen skills the students of English as a second or foreign language need to have in order to become efficient readers, namely: 1 Discriminating among the distinctive graphemes and orthographic patterns of English. 2 Retaining chunks of language of different lengths in short -term memory. 3 Processing writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose. 14 4 Recognizing a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their significance. 5 Recognizing grammatical word classes nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc., systems e.g. tense, agreement, pluralization, patterns, rules, and elliptical forms. 6 Recognizing that a particular meaning may be expressed in different grammatical forms. 7 Recognizing cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in signaling the relationship between and among clauses. 8 Recognizing the rhetorical forms of written discourses and their significance for interpretation. 9 Recognizing the communicative functions of written texts, according to form and purpose. 10 Inferring context that is not explicit by using background knowledge. 11 Inferring links and connections between events, ideas, supporting ideas, etc., deducing causes and effects, and detecting such relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization, and exemplification. 12 Distinguishing between literal and implied meanings 13 Detecting culturally specific references and interpreting them in a context of the appropriate cultural schemata. 14 Developing and using a battery of reading strategies, such as scanning and skimming, detecting discourse markers, guessing the meaning of words from context, and activating schemata for the interpretation of texts. Harmer 1998: 8 proposes the following skills in reading: 1 Reading for gist 2 Reading to extract specific information 3 Reading for detailed understanding 4 Reading for information transfer 15 Langan 2002: 582 mentions several important reading skills, namely: 1 Understanding vocabulary in context 2 Summarizing the selection by providing a title for it 3 Determining the main idea 4 Recognizing key supporting details 5 M aking inferences Burgess and Head 2005: 29-33 mentions a list of reading skills, as follows: 1 Understanding the main ideas 2 Finding specific information and detail 3 Recognizing the writer’s attitude and opinion 4 Identifying the tone 5 Understanding implication 6 Identifying the purpose for which the text was written 7 Understanding text structure and organization 8 Understanding cohesion and coherence 9 Understanding the meaning of specific words in context Reading involves a variety of skills. The main ones are listed below: 1 Recognizing the script of a language 2 Deducing the meaning and use of unfamiliar lexical items 3 Understanding explicitly stated information 4 Understand information when not explicitly stated 5 Understanding conceptual meaning 6 Understanding the communicative value function of sentences and utterances 7 Understanding relations within the sentence 8 Understanding relations between the parts of a text through lexical cohesion devices 16 9 Understanding cohesion between parts of a text through grammatical cohesion devices 10 Interpreting text by going outside it 11 Recognizing indicators in discourse 12 Identifying the main point or important information in a piece of discourse 13 Distinguishing the main idea from supporting details 14 Extracting salient points to summarize 15 Selective extraction of relevant points from a text 16 Basic reference skills 17 Skimming 18 Scanning to locate specifically required information 19 Transcoding information to diagrammatic display Grellet, 1998: 4 In addition, Brindley 1995: 18 mentions the micro-skills for reading, as follows: 1 Understand literal and implied meaning. 2 Skim for gist 3 Scan to extract specific information. 4 Read for overall comprehension. 5 Decode meaning within reasonable time. 6 Interpret text for attitude and style. Barret in Brown 1995: 85 and in Alderson and Urquhart 1996: xvi distinguishes five skills in reading, namely: 1 Literal comprehension 2 Reorganization 3 Inferential comprehension 4 Evaluation 5 Appreciation 17 j. Reading Strategies Brown 2001: 306-310 proposes ten reading strategies, namely: 1 Identifying the purpose in reading 2 Using graphemic rules and patterns to aid in bottom-up decoding for beginning level learners 3 Use efficient silent reading techniques for relatively rapid comprehension for intermediate to advanced level 4 Skimming the text for main ideas 5 Scanning the text for specific information 6 Semantic mapping or clustering 7 Guessing when you aren’t certain 8 Analyzing vocabulary 9 Vocabulary analysis 10 Distinguishing between literal and implied meaning 11 Capitalizing on discourse markers to process relationships Grabe and Stoller 2002: 16 also propose sample reading strategies, namely: 1 Specifying a purpose for reading 2 Planning what to dowhat steps to take 3 Previewing the text 4 Predicting the contents of the text or section of text 5 Checking predictions 6 Posing questions about the text 7 Finding answer s to posed questions 8 Connecting text to background knowledge 9 Summarizing information 10 M aking inferences 11 Connecting one part of the text to another 12 Paying attention to text structure 13 Rereading 18 14 Guessing the meaning of a new word from context 15 Using discourse markers to see relationships 16 Checking comprehension 17 Identifying difficulties 18 Taking steps to repair faulty comprehension 19 Critiquing the author 20 Critiquing the text 21 Judging how well objectives were met 22 Reflecting on what has been learned from the text k. Types of Classroom Reading Performance The following are types of classroom reading performance as stated by Brown 2001: 312: 1 Oral and silent reading For students at the beginning and intermediate levels, oral reading can serve as an evaluative check on bottom-up processing skills, double as a pronunciation check, and serve to add some extra student participation if the teacher wants to highlight a certain short segment of a reading passage. For advance levels, oral reading has some disadvantages, namely: oral reading is not a very authentic language activity; while one student is reading, others can easily lose attention; and it may have the outward appearance of student participation when in reality it is mere recitation. 2 Intensive and extensive reading Silent reading may be subcategorized into intensive and extensive reading. Intensive reading calls students’ attention to grammatical forms, discourse markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of understanding literal meaning, implications, rhetorical relationship, and the like. M eanwhile, extensive reading is carried out to achieve a general understanding of a usually somewhat longer text, such as book, long article, or essays, etc. M ost extensive reading is performed outside of class time and for pleasure. 19 In conclusion, reading skill is a mental process to get meaning from the text involving activating past experience, language background, and cultural framework. It includes understanding main ideas, finding specific information and detail, recognizing the writer’s opinion, identifying the purpose for which the text was written, understanding text structure and organization, and understanding the meaning of specific words in context. 2. Cooperative Learning a. Definition of Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning is an approach to teaching that makes maximum use of cooperative activities involving pairs and small groups of learners in the classroom Richards Rodger, 2001: 192. Cooperative learning is group learning activity organized so that learning is dependent on the socially structured exchange of information between learners in groups and in which each learner is held accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated to increase the learning of others Olsen and Kagan in Richards Rodger, 2001: 192. Cruickshank, et al. 1999: 205 state that cooperative learning is the term used to describe instructional procedures whereby learners work together in small groups and are rewarded for their collective accomplishments. In cooperative learning, the groups or teams typically number from four to six. Their usual tasks are either to collectively learn or master content the teacher has previously presented, or to complete a teacher-assigned project as a team. Slavin in http:www.asian-efl-journal.comNorman_thesis_ 2006. pdf states that cooperative learning refers to instructional methods involving small heterogeneous groups working together, usually toward a common goal. He adds that this approach to learning involves changes to both task structure and incentive structure. The task structure refers to the ways in which the teacher or students set up activities designed to result in student learning where a cooperative structure involves students working together to help one another. The incentive structure moves away from a competitive one in many 20 classrooms to a cooperative one so that the success of one student is positively related to the success of others. Johnson and Johnson in http:www.asian-efl-journal.com Norman_ thesis_2006.pdf highlight the importance of how students interact, arguing that it can affect learning, liking of school and other students, as well as self- esteem. Abu and Flowers in http:www.asian-efl-journal.comNorman_thesis _ 2006.pdf add to this, stating that cooperative interactions provide students with the skills needed for working with others outside of the school setting. As Johnson and Johnson in http:www.asian-efl-journal.comNorman_thesis _ 2006.pdf, point out, however, it is not enough to just put students in groups and tell them to work together for cooperative learning to work. How such groupings are structured will largely determine whether or not they will be more effective that competitive or individualistic groupings. Cooperative learning is important for creating inclusive classroom environments that meet the needs of all students because it takes the heterogeneity into account, encouraging peer support and connection. Given that most classrooms are heterogeneous, it only makes sense to use an approach to teaching and learning which accounts for this heterogeneity. Cooperative learning refers to a broad range of instructional methods in which students work together to learn academic content. Research comparing cooperative learning and traditional methods has found positive effects on the achievement of elementary and secondary students, especially when two key conditions are fulfilled. First, groups must be working toward a common goal, such as the opportunity to earn recognition or rewards based on group performance. Second, the success of the groups must depend on the individual learning of all group members, not on a single group product. In cooperative learning, all can succeed because each has something unique to contribute to the enterprise Rivers, 1996: 78. 21 b. Characteristics of Cooperative Learning All teaching models are characterized, in part, by their task structures, their goal structures, and their reward structures Arends, 1997: 110. Task structures refer to the way lessons are organized and to the kind of work students carry out in the classroom. It encompasses whether the teacher is working with the class or small groups, what students are expected to accomplish as well as the cognitive and social demands placed on them as they work to accomplish assigned learning tasks. Task structures differ according to the various activities involved in particular teaching approaches. For example, some lessons require students to sit passively while receiving information from a teacher’s talk; other lessons require students to complete worksheets and still others to discuss and debate. A lesson’s goal structure is the amount of interdependence required of students as they perform their work. Goal structures are individualistic if achievement of the instructional goal requires no interaction with others and is unrelated to how well others do. Competitive goal structures exist when students perceive they can obtain their goals if the other students fail to obtain theirs. Cooperative goal structures exist when students can obtain their goal only when other students with whom they are linked can obtain theirs. The reward structure for various instructional models can also vary. Just as goal structures can be individualistic, competitive, or cooperative, so too can reward structures. Individualistic reward struct ures exist when a reward can be achieved regardless of what anyone else does. The satisfaction of running a 4-minute mile is an example of an individualistic reward structure. Competitive reward structures are those in which rewards are obtained for individual effort in comparison to others. Grading on a curve is an example of a competitive reward structure as is the way winners are defined in many track and field events. In contrast, situations in which individual effort helps others to be rewarded use cooperative reward structures. Winning at team sports, such as in football, is an example of a 22 cooperative reward system in place, even though teams may compete with each other. Lessons organized around direct instruction and most other teaching models are characterized by task structures where teachers work mainly with a whole class of students or where students are working individually to master academic content. The goal and reward structures for direct instruction are based on individual competition and effort. On the other hand, as its name implies, the cooperative learning model is characterized by cooperative task, goal, and reward structures. Students working in cooperative learning situations are encouraged andor required to work together on a common task, and they must coordinate their efforts to complete task. Using cooperative learning, two or more individuals are interdependent for a reward they will share if they are to be successful as a group. M eanwhile, Cruickshank, et al. 1999: 206-207 state that cooperative learning systems are generally characterized by: 1 The way the groups or teams are made up According to advocates, including Slavin in Cruickshank, et al. 1999: 206, groups must be heterogeneous in terms of gender, academic ability, race, and other traits. Heterogeneity is promoted for at least two reasons. First, cooperative learning is based partly on the humanistic school of thought about learning. That school of thought focuses on the importance of personal and social development. One of its major objectives is to make students feel better about themselves and to be more accepting of others. M ixed groups offer a major means of achieving this goal. Another reason to form heterogeneous teams is so that each member will have an equal opportunity to learn, since talent is about equally distributed to each group. Finally, heterogeneity is fostered because students with lower abilities are more likely to improve their achievement in mixed groups than in homogeneous groups. Thus, 23 heterogeneous teams would seem especially beneficial for students who are at risk of academic failure. 2 The kinds of tasks they do A second way cooperative learning can be characterized is by the kinds of tasks teachers typically assign to the teams. The most common assignment requires each team to master material the teacher presented previously. For example, M rs. Braggins does a presentation on why the seasons change. She then asks the teams to review and learn the material in preparation for a quiz. Another common task is to ask teams to work on projects. M r. Cruz asks his teams to read about the settling of California and then to collaboratively compose a letter as if a settler were writing to relatives in Spain describing the conditions of mission life. 3 T he groups’ rules of behavior Cooperative learning is characterized by rules of behavior required of team members: individual responsibility and accountability to oneself and the team, support and encouragement of team members, peer helping and tutoring, and, of course, cooperation. 4 Their self-esteem and reward systems. Cooperative learning is characterized by a unique system of rewards. Rather than a mark based on personal effort, the individual receives a mark based on the team’s achievement. If the students studied for and took a quiz on why the seasons change, the team’s mark may be the average score for all team members. In letter-writing assignment, all team members receive the score the letter earns. Again, we can liken such a situation to a sport where the team has a collective score and thereby wins or loses. Of course, this arrangement usually arouses peer pressure to do well and to help others do well. Thus, we think cooperative learning also derives some of its ideas from the behavioral school of thought, particularly operant conditioning and social learning. 24 c. Key Components of Effective Cooperative Learning Johnson and Johnson in http:www.asian-efl-journal.com Norman_thesis_2006.pdf outline five key components for effective cooperative learning; positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive face to face interaction, small group skills, and group processing. 1 Positive Interdependence It is important for students to perceive themselves as interdependent, sharing a mutual fate which is mutually caused. This creates a “sink or swim” mentality where the success of the group is dependent on the success of all of the group members, ensuring a social interdependence in the group. Students come to perceive that they are linked with group mates in such a way that they cannot succeed unless their group mates do and vice versa andor that they must coordinate their efforts with the efforts of others in the group to complete a task. Cooperation allows for positive interdependence where all group members work together to accomplish shared goals. Thus, individuals seek outcomes that are both beneficial to themselves and the group members. Promotive goal interdependence where goals are positively linked in such a way that the probability of one person obtaining hisher goal is positively correlated with the probability of others doing so. Reward interdependence where all members in the group are given the same reward. 2 Individual Accountability Slavin in http:www.asian-efl-journal.comNorman_thesis _ 2006.pdf argues that when cooperative learning is poorly constructed, cooperative learning methods can allow for the “free rider” effect “in which some group members do all or most of the work and learning while others do little or nothing. The key to eliminating this is to create individual accountability to ensure that all students learn and that no members in the group are ignored. By having both group goals and 25 individual accountability, students are provided with an incentive to help each other and to encourage each other to put forth maximum effort. Johnson and Johnson in http:www.asian-efl-journal.com Norman_thesis_2006.pdf argue that individual accountability can be achieved through the use of individual assessment which is then used to determine the success level of the group as a whole. Individual accountability can be achieved by frequently highlighting the contributions of each member, assessing who needs more help, and redundancy among members’ efforts and identifying unique contributions of each group member. Teachers need to assess how much effort each member is contributing to the group’s work, provide feedback to groups and individual students, help groups avoid redundant efforts by members, and ensure that all members are responsible for the final outcome. Johnson and Johnson in http:www.asian-efl-journal.com Norman_thesis_2006.pdf highlight key factors for structuring individual accountability. They are keeping the group size small, giving students individual tests where they cannot seek help form others, randomly choosing students to answer questions, observe the group and record the frequency on contribution of each member, assigning one member to be a “checker” who asks other group members to explain the reasoning and rational underlying group answers, and having students teach what they learned to someone else. 3 Promotive face-to-face interaction The physical arrangement of small heterogeneous groups, encourages students to help, share, and support each other’s learning. By working closely together, students can promote each other’s success through explanations, teaching, checking for understanding, discussions, connecting old and new learning. 26 4 Interpersonal and small group skills Johnson and Johnson in http:www.asian-efl-journal.com Norman_thesis_2006.pdf argue that the more socially skillful students are, and the more attention teachers pay to teaching and rewarding the use of social skills, the higher the achievement that can be expected within cooperative learning groups. Students need to learn interpersonal skills such as active listening, staying on task, asking questions, conflict management and resolution and so forth. 5 Group processing Johnson believes that group processing takes place on two levels, in small groups and the whole class. To allow for group processing at the group level, they argued that teachers should allow time and the end of each class for groups to process how effectively the members worked together. Doing so, they argued would: Enable learning groups to focus on maintaining good working relationships among members. Facilitate learning of cooperative skills. Ensure that members receive feedback on their participation in the group. Ensure that students think on the metacognitive as well as cognitive level. Provide a means to celebrate the success of the group and to reinforce positive behaviors. Processing at the class level can be done by having the teacher occasionally observe groups, analyze problems and then provide feedback to the whole class. Simply, the use of cooperative learning strategies results in improvements both in the achievement of students and in the qualit y of their interpersonal relationships http:courses.educ.queensu.ca prof150- 155learningreadingsdocumentsSlavincooplrng.pdf. d. Definition of Teams-Games-Tournament TGT Teams-Games-Tournament TGT is the first of the Johns Hopkins cooperative learning methods http:courses.educ.queensu.caprof150- 155learningreadingsdocumentsSlavincooplrng.pdf. Teams-Games- Tournament TGT is a strategy usually used to check for understanding 27 information, for reviewing and test preparation http:www.yrdsb.edu.on.ca pdfswiiTeachingM asters.doc. It works best for information that is relatively objective. TGT is one type of cooperative learning which is easy to implement, involving the activities of all students without a difference in status, involving the role of students as peer tutors and an element of the game and reinforcement http:dudy -adityawan.comeducationteam-games- tournament-method-tgt e. The Procedure of Teams-Games-Tournament TGT There are five main components in Teams-Games-Tournament http:dudy -adityawan.comeducationteam-games-tournament-method-tgt: 1 Serving Class At the beginning, teachers deliver learning materials in the classroom presentation, usually done by direct instruction or with lectures, discussions led by teachers. At the same time of presentation of this class, students should really pay attention and understand the material presented by the teachers because it helps students perform better at work and at the game because the game score will determine the score of the group. 2 Group Team Groups usually consist of 4 to 5 students who are members of heterogeneous views of academic achievement, gender, and race or ethnicity. The group of the group is to further explore the material with friends and more specific group to prepare group members to work properly and optimally at the time of the game. 3 Game Game c onsists of questions which are designed to test students’ knowledge gained from classroom presentation and study groups. M ost games consist of simple questions numbered. Students choose a numbered card and try to answer the questions according to the number. Students who correctly answer that question will get a score. These scores of students who later collected for the tournament week. 28 4 Tournaments Tournaments are usually conducted on weekends or on each unit after the teacher and the classroom presentation group work on the worksheet. The teacher divides students into several table tournaments. The three highest student achievements grouped in table I, three more students on table II and so on. 5 Team Recognize Group Award Teachers then announce the winning group, each team will receive a gift certificate or if the average score to meet the specified criteria. Team earned the nickname “Super Team” if the average scores of 45 or more, “Great Team” when the average reached 40-45, and “Good Team” if the average is 30-40. TGT uses the same teacher presentations and teamwork as in STAD, but replaces the quizzes with weekly tournaments Slavin in http:courses.educ.queensu.caprof150-155learningreadingsdocuments Slavincooplrng.pdf. In these, students compete with members of other teams to contribute points to their team scores. Students compete at three-person tournament tables against others with similar past records in mathematics. A bumping procedure changes table assignments to keep the competition fair. The winner at each tournament table brings the same number of points to his or her team, regardless of which table it is; this means that low achievers competing with other low achievers and high achievers competing with other high achievers have equal opportunities for success. As in STAD, high- performing teams earn certificates or other forms of team rewards. TGT is appropriate for the same types of objectives as STAD. Cruickshank, et al. 1999: 207 also states that t he procedure of TGT follows STAD except that, instead of an individual quiz being given, the teams compete against one another. It is supported in http:www.csos.jhu.edu crespartechReportsReport11.pdf that TGT is the same as STAD except that students play academic games with members of the other teams to add points 29 to an overall team score. Instead of quizzes, there are weekly tournament tables composed of four-member teams, with each member contributing points to the particular team score. In STAD, students work in four-member, heterogeneous learning teams. First the teacher provides the lesson content through direct instruction. Then, students work in their teams to help each other master the content, using study guides, worksheets, or other material as a basis for discussion, tutoring, and assessment among students. Following this, students take brief quizzes, on which they cannot help each other. Teams can earn recognition or privileges based on the improvement made by each team member over his or her own past record. The TGT procedure is: teacher p resentation, teamwork, team-versus- team competition, scoring, and team reward Cruickshank,, 1999: 207. In the team-versus-team competition phase, each member of a team is assigned to a table where he or she will compete against members from other teams. Low achievers compete with other low achievers, and high achievers compete with other high achievers for equal points. Thus, the impact of low achievers is equal to that of high achievers. Another source mentions the procedures of TGT, namely: 1 Students work in a Home Teams of three and review the information learned. 2 They then break into Tournament Groups where one student from each group gets together with two students, each from one other group. 3 Tournament groups then respond to a number of questions. The questions are placed on cards with the answers on the back. 4 When they have completed the questions, or the time is up, they return to their home team and add up their individual tournament scores. The group with the most points receives an incentive. http:www.yrdsb.edu.on.capdfswiiTeachingM asters.doc. 30 f. The Advantages of TGT The following are the advantages of TGT: 1 TGT is a general cooperative learning method adaptable to most subjects and grade levels. TGT applies to most subjects and grade levels Slavin in http:courses.educ.queensu.caprof150-155learning readingsdocuments Slavincooplrng.pdf. 2 In studies of methods like TGT, effects on achievement have been consistently positive Slavin in http:courses.educ.queensu.caprof 150 - 155learningreadingsdocumentsSlavincooplrng.pdf. 3 TGT emphasizes the use of group goals in this case, recognition in which teams can only achieve success if each team member can perform well on an independent assessment. This motivates team members to do a good job of teaching and assessing each other. Fashola, et al. in http:www.csos.jhu.educrespartechReportsReport11.pdf. TGT brings positive effects on intergroup relations, including follow-ups of intergroup friendships several months after the end of the studies Slavin in http:courses.educ.queensu.caprof150-155learningreadings documentsSlavincooplrng.pdf. 4 It increases students’ self-esteem, motivation, altruism, and respect for others and decreases prejudice Spolsky, 1999: 558. TGT requires interaction among students which is beneficial for them because it influences students’ educational aspirations and achievement, develop social competencies, and encourage taking on perspectives of others Johnson, 1996: 112. Furthermore, Orrnstein and Lasley 2000: 323 state that cooperation among students can help foster: positive and coherent personal identity, self-esteem, knowledge and trust of others, communication skills, acceptance and support of others, wholesome intergroup relationships, and reduced conflicts among students. 31 3. Lecture a. Definition of Lecture Lecture is derive d from the Latin word “legere” which means to read https:www.csupomona.edu~jkupshinstructionalText_and_Worksheets text5.pdf. Lecture is an oral presentation intended to present information or teach students about a particular subject http:en.Wikipedia.orgwiki Lecture. Lecture is used to convey critical information, history, background, theories and equations. It is widely known that lecture is usually applied by teachers. Good and Brophy 1990: 328 state that lecturing is commonly used because it is efficient in brief time, the teacher can expose students to content that might take them much longer to locate on their own. It can be used with groups or entire classes rather than just with individuals, it gives the teacher control over the content, and it is easily combined with other methods and adjustable to fit the available time, the physical setting and situational constraints. b. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Lecture There are some benefits and weaknesses of lecturing in teaching and learning process. The strong facts coming from lecture are as follows: 1 Lecture can present large amounts of information. 2 It can be presented to large audiences. 3 It presents little risk for students. 4 It appeals to students whose learn by listening. Bonwell in http:www.wcer.wisc.eduarchievecllcladvlec.html. Further, M oore 1999: 181 mentions the strengths of lecture as follows: 1 Lecture is an excellent way of presenting background information 2 A short lecture can effectively wrap up unit, an activity, or a lesson. 3 Lecture is time-efficient; that is, p lanning time is devoted to organizing content, rather than to devising instructional procedure. 32 However, critics point out that lecturing is mainly a one-way method of communication that does not involve significant audience participation. Therefore, lecturing is often contrasted to active learning. This passive mode of lecture although still common in education can easily be transformed into a more active learning process. Lectures delivered by talented speakers can be highly stimulating; at the very least, lectures have survived in academia as a quick, cheap and efficient way of introducing large numbers of students to a particular field of study http:en.wikipedia.orgwikiLecture. Some disadvantages of lecture are stated below: 1 Lecture fails to provide instructors with feedback about the extent of student learning 2 Information tends to be forgotten quickly when students are passive 3 Lecture presumes that all students learn at the same pace and are at the same level of understanding 4 Lecture emphasizes learning by listening, which is a disadvantage for students who have other learning style Bonwell in http:www.wcer.wisc.eduarchieveclldoingcladvlec htm. M oore 1994: 182 states that lecture has several serious flaws, namely: 1 Lecture fosters passive learning, with very low student involvement. Students are expected, and even encouraged, to sit quietly, listen, and perhaps take notes. 2 It is not good for helping students develop skills in thinking, problem solving, and creativity. 3 Lectures frequently are boring and do not motivate. 4 Because lecture tends to focus on the lowest level of cognition, understanding and transfer are often limited. 33 5 It may lead to the development of discipline problem. M ost lectures generate little interest, and students’ attention soon wanes and turns to more stimulating and often undesirable activities. 4. Self- Esteem a. Definition of Self-Esteem M any experts have the similar perspectives related to what self- esteem is. Newman and Newman 2009: 259 define self-esteem as an evaluation of worthiness. Self- esteem is the overall evaluation of one’s self- worth or self-image Santrock, 2006: 83. Self-esteem is an evaluative judgment of self-worth Woolfolk, 2007: 85. It is the evaluative feelings associated with our self-image Williams and Burden, 1997: 97. Self-esteem is the personal judgment we make about our own worth Atwater, 1990: 154. Self-esteem is the studen ts’ evaluations and feelings about themselves Woolfolk, 2007: 88. In other words, self-esteem refers to how the students evaluate and feel about themselves. Such evaluation is built up through repeated experiences of success and failure, other people’s impressions, and the self-appraisals in relation to ideal selves. Further, Woolfolk 2007: 85 states that self-esteem is the value each of us places on our own characteristics, abilities, and behaviors. It means that self-esteem is related to characteristics, abilities, and behaviors. Self-esteem means how positively or negatively we feel about ourselves Passer and Smith, 2004: 441. Self-esteem is the component of personality that encompasses our positive and negative self-evaluations Feldman, 2005: 334. In other words, students’ self-esteem can be either positive or negative. Students may have either high or low self-esteem. Lickona in Parsons, et al. 2001: 80 defines self-esteem as a student’s sense of mastery or competence. It means that self-esteem is strongly related to the students’ judgment about their competence. Self esteem may reflect a belief about whether someone is intelligent and attractive Santrock, 2006: 84. Self-esteem is a self-judgment of worth or value, based on feelings 34 of efficac y, a sense of interacting effectively with one’s own environment Spolsky, 1999: 557. It can be said that the students’ feeling of efficacy influences their-judgment of worth. The term self-esteem has been used to refer to some hypothetical overall or global level of self-evaluation or self-regard Corsini, 1994: 361. Self-esteem is the way one feels about oneself, including the degree to which one possesses self-respect and self-acceptance Corsini, 1994: 361. Self- esteem is the sense of personal worth and competence that persons associate with their self-concepts Corsini, 1994: 361. M eanwhile, M altby 1995: 336 states that self-esteem refers to generalized feelings about the value we place on our attributes and personality. Furthermore, Coopersmith in Brown 2000: 103 gives the following definition: “By self-esteem, we refer to the evaluation which the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself; it expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval, and indicates the extent to which an individual believes himself to be capable, significant, successful, and worthy. In short, self-esteem is a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards himself. It is a subjective experience which the individual conveys to others by verbal reports and other overt expressive behavior.” b. Sources of Self-Esteem Newman and Newman 2009: 259 state that self-esteem is based on three sources, namely: 1 M essages of love, support, and approval from others Views of the self as being loved, valued, admired, and successful contribute to a sense of worth. By contrast, views of the self as being ignored, rejected, scorned, and inadequate contribute to a sense of worthlessness. 2 Specific attributes and competencies Information about specific aspects of the self is accumulated through experiences of success and failure in daily tasks or when particular aspects of one’s competence are challenged. 35 3 The way one regards those specific asp ect of the self in comparison with others and in relation to one’s ideal self Self-esteem is influenced by the value one assigns to specific competencies in relation to one’s overall life goals and personal ideals. c. Elements of Self-esteem Self-esteem includes two important components, namely: a sense of self-efficacy and a sense of self-respect or worthiness Branden in http:www.centerforconsciousliving.comselfesteem. Self-efficacy is beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainment Bandura in Woolfolk, 2007: 332. Self-esteem seems to be composed of several elements that contribute to students’ sense of worth Elliott, et al., 2000: 101, namely: 1 A sense of physical safety St udents who feel physically secure aren’t afraid of being harmed, which helps to develop feelings of confidence. 2 A sense of emotional security Students who aren’t humiliated or subjected to sarcasm feel safe emotionally, which translates into a willingness to trust others. 3 A sense of identity Students who know who they are have achieved a degree of self- knowledge that enables them to take responsibility for their actions and relate well with others. 4 A sense of belonging Students who are accepted by others are comfortable in seeking out new relationships and begin to develop feelings of independence and interdependence. 5 A sense of competence Students who are confident in their ability to do certain things are willing to try to learn to do new things and persevere until they achieve mastery. 36 d. Characteristics of Students Having High and Low Self-Esteem Self-esteem has a high impact on success in EFLESL learning http:www.njcu.eduCILLvol7andres.html. Self-esteem plays a crucial role in learning since it is the best predictors of academic success Biggs and Watkins, 1995: 75. Littlewood 1998: 64 states that a study by Adelaide Heyde found that self-esteem was associated with second language proficiency. Learners with high self-esteem are less likely to feel threatened when communicating in a strange language or in an unfamiliar situation. They may also be more ready to risk making mistakes or projecting a reduced image of themselves. Atwater 1990: 155 states that the students having high level of self- esteem are generally pleased with themselves and make inferences about themselves that are slightly more positive than might be expected. Self-esteem exerts a powerful influence on students’ expectations, their judgments about themselves and others, and their behavior. Students with high self-esteem are willing to test the validity of their inferences about themselves. Having a high level of self-acceptance, they tend to be accepting of others, including those with different opinions than themselves, and enjoy satisfying relationships with others. They also expect to do well in their accomplishments, try hard and try to be successful. They are inclined to attribute their success to their abilities, and to make due allowance for circumstances in interpreting their failures. As a result, students with high self-esteem generally enjoy a great deal of self-confidence and have a realistic assessment of their strengths and weaknesses. M eanwhile, the students having low self-esteem are generally less willing to put their ideas about themselves to the test and are never really convinced of their own self-assessment. Furthermore, students with low level of self-esteem tend to expect the worst, exert less effort on their tasks, especially challenging, demanding ones, and achieve less success. Even, when students having low self-esteem achieve success, they are less apt to attribute their success to their abilities or to enjoy it. In other words, students with high 37 esteem forge ahead academically while those with low esteem fall behind Atwater, 1990: 155. Dealing with the characteristics of students having high and low self- esteem, Passer and Smith 2004: 442 state that self-esteem is related to many positive behaviors and life outcomes. Students with high self-esteem are happier with their lives, have fewer interpersonal problems, achieve at a higher and more consistent level, are less susceptible to social pressure, and are more capable of forming satisfying love relationship. In contrast, students with low self-esteem are less likely to try to make themselves feel better when they experience negative moods in response to perceived failures in their lives. This is may be one reason why they are more prone to psychological problems, such as anxiety and depression, to physical illness, and to poor social relationships, and underachievement. e. Effects of Self-Esteem Self esteem is one of our most basic psychological needs. The degree of our self-esteem or lack of it impacts every major aspect of our lives. It has profound effects on our thinking processes, emotions, desire, values, choices, and goals. Deficit in self-esteem contribute to virtually all psychological problems http:www.centerforconsciousliving.comselfesteem. M eanwhile, Sprinthall, et al. 1998: 562-563 mentions the effects of self-esteem, as follows: 1 Effects on academic performance Since the more academically successful students tend to display higher level of various affective components, including self-esteem, it might seem to follow that increasing any student’s feeling of self-esteem would then be translated into an increase in academic performance 2 Effects on later success Closely related to the issue of self-esteem is that students will be more motivated and work harder in school if they believe that their efforts will lat er pay off in the job market. 38 f. Strategies for Increasing Self-Esteem Since self- esteem is crucial, teachers should try to increase students’ self esteem. Woolfolk 2007: 89 gives some suggestions for encouraging students’ self-esteem, namely: 1 Value and accept all students, for their attempts as well as their accomplishments. 2 Create a climate that is physically and psychologically safe for students. 3 Avoid destructive comparisons and competition; encourage students to compete with their own prior levels of achievement. 4 Encourage students to take responsibility for their reaction to events; show them that they have choices in how to response. 5 Set up support groups in school and teach students how to encourage each other. 6 Help students set clear goals and objectives; brainstorm about resources they have for reaching their goals. 7 Highlight the value of different ethnic groups-their cultures and accomplishments. Dornyei 2001: 31 suggests some strategies for ESLEFL teachers to create a supportive atmosphere in the classroom, namely: establishing a norm of tolerance; encouraging risk-taking and having mistakes accepted as a natural part of learning; bringing in and encouraging humor, and encouraging learners to personalize the classroom environment according their taste. Here are six strategies that can increase an individual’s self-esteem as stated by Santrock 2006: 86-87: 1 Identify sources of self-esteem and what is causing low self-esteem. A key first step in improving self-esteem is to determine what is contributing to low self-esteem. 39 2 Face a problem and try to cope with it. Self-esteem is often increased when individuals try to cop e with a problem rather than avoiding it Bednar, et al. in Santrock , 2006: 86. Facing problems realistically, honestly, and nondefensively leads to favorable thoughts about one self, which lead to self-approval and higher self- esteem. 3 Seek emotional support. Emotional support and social approval have a positive influence on self- esteem. However, some individuals experience little emotional support or social approval because their families are filled with conflict or their romantic relationships are marred by hostility. In some cases, alternative sources of emotional support can improve self-esteem. Quality friendships, counseling, or therapy can sometimes compensate for shortcomings in other sources of emotional support. 4 Take responsibility for your self-esteem. To increase self-esteem, one should assume that heshe has the ability to improve hisher self-esteem and takes the initiative to do so Crocker and Park in Santrock, 2006: 86 5 Look for opportunities to achieve. Achievement can also improve self-esteem Baumeister, et al. in Santrock, 2006: 86. 6 Explore sources to improve your self-understanding. M any individuals with low self- esteem don’t know themselves well. To improve their self-esteem, they should increase their self-understanding. In conclusion, self-esteem is the evaluation which the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself; it expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval, and indicates the extent to which an individual believes himself to be cap able, significant, successful, and worthy. Self-esteem is composed of several elements, namely: a sense of physical safety, a sense of emotional security, a sense of identity, a sense of belonging, 40 and a sense of competence. Students with high self-esteem are happier with their lives, have fewer interpersonal problems, achieve at a higher and more consistent level, are less susceptible to social pressure, and are more capable of forming satisfying love relationship. In contrast, students with low self- esteem are less likely to try to make themselves feel better when they experience negative moods in response to perceived failures in their lives. They are more prone to psychological problems, such as anxiety and depression, to physical illness, and to poor social relationships, and underachievement.

B. Rationale