The C ultural Process o f M anagem ent O u r fin a l p e r s p e c tiv e o n m a n a g e m e n t is c o n c e r n e d w ith c u ltu r e . A c u ltu ra l

3. The C ultural Process o f M anagem ent O u r fin a l p e r s p e c tiv e o n m a n a g e m e n t is c o n c e r n e d w ith c u ltu r e . A c u ltu ra l

p e r s p e c tiv e e m p h a s is e s m o ra l o rd e r . I n s te a d o f m a n a g e m e n t b e in g c o n c e r n e d to

a c c o m m o d a tio n , managers of culture p r e s c r ib e th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f m o ra l s y s te m s o f m e a n in g a n d v a lu e . T h e c u ltu r a l p e r s p e c tiv e e n c o m p a s s e s B o lm a n a n d D e a l's 's y m b o li c ' fr a m e o f r e f e r e n c e ( B o lm a n & D e a l, 1991, p a rt 5).

e s ta b lis h s y s te m s o f

bureaucratic

a d m in is tr a tio n o r

p o litica l

T h e r e c e n t in te r e s t in c u ltu r e h a s b e e n s tim u la te d b y tw o m a jo r s o c ia l

c h a n g e s le a d to th e q u e s tio n in g o f tra d iti o n a l a s s u m p tio n s a n d b e lie fs . F ir s t, in th e

e c o n o m ic s p h e r e , is th e g lo b a lis a tio n o f w o r ld m a rk e ts a n d c o m p e titio n fr o m n e w ly

d e v e lo p in g n a tio n s . E a r ly a c a d e m ic c o m p a r is o n s b e tw e e n w e s te r n m a n a g e m e n t a n d J a p a n e s e m a n a g e m e n t ( f o r e x a m p le se e A b b e g le n , 1 958; D o re , 1 9 7 3 ) th r e w in to r e l i e f th e im p o r ta n c e o f c u ltu r e , a n d o f s ig n if ic a n t d if f e r e n c e s in th e c u ltu r e s o f

d if f e r e n t g ro u p s . T h e s e c o n d m a jo r c h a n g e th a t w e b e lie v e h a s s tim u la te d r e c e n t in te r e s t in th e m a n a g e m e n t o f c u ltu re , is th e s u b je c t o f o u r p a p e r. T h e m o v e m e n t o f w o m e n in to n o n - tr a d itio n a l w o rk a re a s, in p a r tic u la r in to m a n a g e m e n t, a g a in f o c u s e s

a tte n tio n o n th e im p a c t o f tr a d itio n a l a s s u m p tio n s a n d b e lie fs . P r o b le m s s u r r o u n d in g w o m e n in m a n a g e m e n t h a v e s tim u la te d w o rk o n th e p o s s ib ility th a t tr a d itio n a l im a g e s , m e a n in g s , e x p e c ta tio n s , v a lu e s , a s s u m p tio n s a n d b e l ie f s y s te m s m a y n e e d to

b e c h a n g e d ( f o r e x a m p le se e K a n te r 1977 & 1 9 83 )

P r e s c r ip tio n s f o r m a n a g in g o r c h a n g in g o r g a n is a tio n a l c u ltu r e h a v e b e c o m e

a m a jo r f e a tu r e o f m a n a g e m e n t th o u g h t in th e 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s. T h e s e p r e s c r ip tio n s

e m p h a s is e th e im p o r ta n c e o f c r e a tin g s u p p o rtiv e , p o s itiv e , c u ltu r e s th a t e m p h a s is e o r g a n is a tio n a l r a th e r th a n se c tio n a l g o a ls. (P e te r s a n d W a te r m a n 1 9 82. K a n te r 19 8 3 ,

C u ltu r a l M a n a g e m e n t A n d G e n d e r

A s c u ltu r e is a s s o c ia te d w ith b e lie fs , im a g e s a n d v a lu e s , its r e le v a n c e f o r th e s tu d y o f g e n d e r in m a n a g e m e n t is s e l f e v id e n t. O u r d is c u s s io n s o f g e n d e r e d s te r e o ty p e s a n d th e im p a c t o f g e n d e r o n th e b u r e a u c ra tic a n d p o litic a l e le m e n ts o f

V o l . 5 , N o . 1, A u g 1 9 9 7 © C e n t r e f o r I n d o n e s ia n A c c o u n t i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t R e s e a r c h

T h e I n t e r n a t io n a l J o u r n a l o f A c c o u n t i n g a n d B u s i n e s s S o c i e t y 8 9

m a n a g e m e n t, h a v e a ll d e a lt w ith a s p e c ts o f c u ltu re . C u ltu ra l a ttitu d e s th a t s u p p o r t s e x d is c r im in a tio n c a n a c t to r e n d e r u s e le s s th e e q u a l o p p o r tu n ity p o lic ie s

e s ta b lis h e d b y b u r e a u c ra tic o r p o litic a l fo rm s o f m a n a g e m e n t a c tio n . G a r d n e r a n d P a lm e r (1 9 9 2 ) d o c u m e n t th e m a n y s tu d ie s w h ic h s h o w th e im p a c t o f s e x is t v a lu e s

a n d b e lie f s o n m a n a g e r ia l p r o c e s s e s th a t a r e in te n d e d to b e g e n d e r n e u tr a l. R e c r u itm e n t a n d s e le c tio n ? j o b e v a lu a tio n o r p e r f o r m a n c e a p p r a is a l^ a s w e ll a s o n th e d iv is io n o f la b o u r a n d re m u n e r a tio n c a n a ll b e in flu e n c e d b y c u ltu r a lly r e in f o r c e d a s s u m p tio n s th a t d is c r im in a te o n th e b a s is o f g e n d e r.

M a n y m a n a g e r ia l d e c is io n s a p p e a r to b e ta k e n in th e lig h t o f s tr o n g , s o c ia lly

c o n d itio n e d , a s s u m p tio n s a b o u t n a tu ra l o r a p p r o p r ia te b e h a v io u r f o r w o m e n o r m e n 9. T h e e v id e n c e is so p o w e rf u l th a t it h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d th a t m u c h c a n b e g a in e d b y r e a s s e s s in g o u r tr a d itio n a l id e a s o f o rg a n is a tio n a l th e o r y in th e lig h t o f a n im p ro v e d u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e im p a c t o f c u ltu r a l n o tio n s o f g e n d e r (M ills , 19 8 8 ).

women w ith new u n d e r s ta n d in g , a n d n e w s tr a te g ie s f o r u s e a t w o rk . S tu d ie s o f g e n d e r b ia s in m a n a g e m e n t a re r e s u ltin g in p r e s c r ip tio n s , e a g e r ly s o u g h t b y fe m a le m a n a g e r s ,

d e s ig n e d to c h a n g e th e im p lic it a s s u m p tio n s th a t w o m e n d o n o t s e e k p u b lic p o w e r, o r th a t th e ir in f lu e n c e s tr a te g ie s a r e a f f ilia tiv e r a th e r th a n in s tr u m e n ta l. T e c h n iq u e s

a re a d v o c a te d to o v e r c o m e th e p r o b le m s a s s o c ia te d w ith su c h a s s u m p tio n s (B a k e r, 1991)

In d e e d , m u c h p r e s c r ip tiv e m a n a g e r ia l lite ra tu re n o w ta k e s th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f n o n - d is c r im in a to r y a s s u m p tio n s a n d b e lie f s a s th e h a llm a r k o f a c h ie v in g n e w , im p r o v e d o r g a n is a tio n a l c u ltu r e s ( A b u r d e n e & N a is b itt, 199 2 ).

a r e d if f e r e n c e s in th e ir b e h a v io u r a n d sty le . A n y s tu d y o f g e n d e r in m a n a g e m e n t n e e d s to c o n s id e r th e q u e s tio n o f g e n d e r e d s te re o ty p e s , a n d lo o k a t th e e v id e n c e w h ic h s u g g e s ts th a t p r o b le m s o f d is c r im in a tio n still e x ist. M a n a g e m e n t is a c o m p le x p r o c e s s a n d it is u s e f u l to a d o p t m u ltip le p e r s p e c tiv e s to e n c o m p a s s th e d if f e r e n t

a s p e c ts o f th e p r o c e s s . U s in g th e m u ltip le p e r s p e c tiv e s o f b u r e a u c ra tic , p o litic a l a n d

c u ltu r a l m a n a g e m e n t, w e h a v e s o u g h t to s h o w th a t th e s tu d ie s o f w o m e n in

7 Collinson, D. Knights, D & Collinson, M (1990)

op. cit. pp 193-5

* Burton, C, Hag, R & Thompson, G (1987)

Women, s Worth, P ay Equity a n d Job Evaluation in Australia, AGPS,

Sydney, see also G ardner & Palmer, op cit, pp 296-300

9 M a n y s t u d i e s a r e s u m m a r i s e d in B a k e r , M " R e c ip r o c a l A c c o m o d a t i o n : a m o d e l f o r r e d u c i n g g e n d e r b i a s in

managerial communication

"The Journal o f Business communication,

28.2, tables 1 and 2, pp 116, 120, 121.

V o l . 5 , N o . 1, A u g 1 9 9 7 © C e n t r e f o r I n d o n e s ia n A c c o u n t i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t R e s e a r c h

90 G e n d e r in M a n a g e m e n t : A S o c i o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e

m a n a g e m e n t c a n b e u s e d to illu m in a te so m e o f th e c o m p le x itie s o f th e m a n a g e m e n t p r o c e s s itse lf.

T h e s tu d ie s o n g e n d e r in m a n a g e m e n t is p r o v in g o f c o n s id e r a b le in te r e s t to w o m e n , a s th e y s e e k s tr a te g ie s to o v e r c o m e th e p r o b le m s th a t th e y se e. T h e im p lic a tio n s o f th is w o rk fo r men,

a n d fo r o u r n o tio n s o f m anagem ent

c o u ld b e

e q u a lly s ig n if ic a n t, b u t th e y h a v e y e t to b e f u lly e x p lo re d . C u ltu r a lly a p p r o v e d

d e p e n d e n c y m o d e ls m a y m a k e th e tr a d itio n a l, s te r e o ty p ic a l w o m a n d e p e n d e n t o n m e n f o r e c o n o m ic a n d p h y s ic a l p ro te c tio n , b u t th e y h a v e a ls o m a d e th e tr a d itio n a l, s te r e o ty p ic a l m a n d e p e n d e n t o n w o m e n fo r th e m a in te n a n c e o f e th ic a l a n d

e m o tio n a l v a lu e s a n d d o m e s tic su p p o rt. It is in th e s e a re a s th a t s tu d ie s o f th e in f lu e n c e o f g e n d e r o n o r g a n is a tio n a l c u ltu r e s till h a s s o m e w a y to g o , b e f o r e th e fu ll im p a c t o f g e n d e r o n th e s tu d y o f m a n a g e m e n t is c le a r.

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