P olitical Processes In M anagem ent T h e b u r e a u c ra tic p e r s p e c tiv e h a s o fte n b e e n c r itic is e d f o r ig n o rin g o r

2. P olitical Processes In M anagem ent T h e b u r e a u c ra tic p e r s p e c tiv e h a s o fte n b e e n c r itic is e d f o r ig n o rin g o r

s im p lif y in g is s u e s s u r r o u n d in g th e u se o f p o w e r w ith in w o r k o r g a n is a tio n s .

B u r e a u c r a tic p r e s c r ip tio n s a llo c a te fo rm a l a u th o rity in a h ie ra r c h y o f r e s p o n s ib ility

a n d s u p e r v is io n . F o rm a l a u th o rity is se e n a s th e ra tio n a l a n d th e re f o r e a c c e p ta b le o r le g itim a te e x e r c is e o f p o w e r , a n d th e b u r e a u c ra tic p e r s p e c tiv e th e re f o r e fo c u s e s

a lm o s t e x c lu s iv e ly o n p o w e r a s fo rm a l a u th o rity . O th e r p o w e r b a s e s , a n d o th e r fo r m s o f in f lu e n c e a re e ith e r ig n o r e d , o r s e e n a s a p r o b le m . T h e a r e lik e ly to b e re g a r d e d a s ille g itim a te p o w e r p la y s, v e r g in g o n d is lo y a lty o r c o r r u p tio n , w h ic h

c o r r e c t a d m in is tr a tiv e p r o c e d u r e s a r e d e s ig n e d to e lim in a te . T h e b u r e a u c ra tic f r a m e o f re f e r e n c e c a r r ie s a m o ra l p r e f e r e n c e fo r a c e rta in v ie w o f p o litic s , a n d th is m o ra l sta n c e c lo s e s o f f th e a n a ly s is o f th e fu ll ra n g e o f p o litic a l a c tiv ity th a t a c tu a lly e x ists

in o rg a n is a tio n s

T h e v a lu e o f a p o litic a l fra m e o f re f e r e n c e is th a t it fo c u s e s a tte n tio n o n th e

e x e r c is e o f p o w e r. T h e p o litic a l p e r s p e c tiv e in e v ita b ly q u e s tio n s c e r ta in b u r e a u c ra tic

a s s u m p ti o n s . It c h a lle n g e s th e a s s u m p tio n s th a t o r g a n is a tio n a l o b je c tiv e s c a n o r s h o u ld b e u n a m b ig u o u s , a n d th a t o n c e o r g a n is a tio n a l g o a ls a re set, th o s e in p o s itio n s o f o r g a n is a tio n a l a u th o r ity h a v e a ll th e p o w e r th e y n e e d to im p le m e n t th e o b je c tiv e s w ith o u t h a v in g to c o n s id e r a n y o th e r in te re s ts o r g o a ls.

A p o litic a l p e r s p e c tiv e o n m a n a g e m e n t th e re f o r e f o c u s e s o n th e p o litic a l p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d in e s ta b lis h in g n e g o tia tin g p o s itio n s a n d g a in in g s u p p o r t fo r

d if f e r e n t p o lic ie s . " In th is v ie w m a n a g e m e n t is c o n c e r n e d to r e s o lv e c o n f lic ts

b e tw e e n s ta k e h o ld e r s in an o r g a n is a tio n in a s itu a tio n w h e re th e re is c o n s id e r a b le u n c e r ta in ty a b o u t th e c r ite r ia u se d fo r ju d g i n g o rg a n is a tio n a l e f f e c tiv e n e s s . In p la c e

V o l. 5 , N o . 1, A u g 1 9 9 7 © C e n t r e f o r I n d o n e s ia n A c c o u n t i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t R e s e a r c h

84 G e n d e r in M a n a g e m e n t : A S o c i o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e

o f th e r a tio n a l, c o - o r d in a te d m a c h in e th is p e r s p e c tiv e se e s a p lu r a lity o f c o m p e tin g

g r o u p s a n d c o a litio n s ." ( G a r d n e r & P a lm e r, 1 9 9 2 :1 9 6 ). A p o litic a l p e r s p e c tiv e lo o k s

f o r a p lu r a lity o f in te r e s t a n d a s s u m e s th e d if f e r e n t in te re s ts w ill h a v e a v a r ie ty o f re s o u r c e s w ith w h ic h to p re s s th e ir c la im s .

P o litic s A n d G e n d e r In M a n a g e m e n t

a n a ly s is of o r g a n is a tio n a l c h a n g e . In th e s e c tio n 'B u r e a u c r a c y a n d G e n d e r" w e d is c u s s e d th e u se o f b u r e a u c r a tic a r g u m e n ts to o v e r c o m e p r o b le m s o f so c ia l

A p o litic a l

b o th b u r e a u c ra tic a n d p o litic a l sk ills.

F o r b u r e a u c ra tic a r g u m e n ts to b e s u c c e s s fu l in e s ta b lis h in g e q u ita b le p o lic ie s , s o m e p o litic a l s tr e n g th s e e m s n e c e s s a ry . F e m o c ra ts n e tw o r k w ith in th e o r g a n is a tio n . T h e y lo b b y f o r p o litic a l s u p p o r t o u ts id e . P o litic a l a c tiv ity is n e e d e d i f

a n y g r o u p is to s u c c e s s f u lly c h a lle n g e e s ta b lis h e d n o r m s o f b e h a v io u r . ( R iz z o a n d M e n d e z , 1 9 90 ). C o m p a r a tiv e s ta tis tic s o n th e p r o p o r ti o n o f w o m e n in m a n a g e r ia l p o s itio n s in d if f e r e n t c o u n trie s s h o w d if f e r e n c e s w h ic h c a n o f te n b e a s s o c ia te d w ith

d if f e r e n c e s in le g is la tio n a n d o th e r fo r m s o f p o litic a l a c tiv ity .

T h e p o litic a l p e r s p e c tiv e o n m a n a g e m e n t th e re f o r e p r o v id e s a re a d y c h a n n e l

f o r s tu d y in g th e p o litic a l r e s o u r c e s th a t a c c r u e to g e n d e r . It f o c u s e s o n th e e x te n t th a t o r g a n is a tio n a l re s o u r c e s a r e u s e d to f u r th e r in te re s ts a n d o b je c tiv e s th a t d e r iv e

f ro m s e x u a l id e n titie s . U s in g a p o litic a l p e r s p e c tiv e o n m a n a g e m e n t, s e v e ra l

g e n d e r - r e la te d is s u e s c a n b e th r o w n in to fo c u s . In th is p a p e r w e b r ie f ly n o te th a t p o litic a l is s u e s m a y o c c u r a t s e v e ra l le v e ls. I n d iv id u a l, g ro u p a n d in s ti tu tio n a l le v e ls o f a n a ly s is m a y b e n e e d e d to f u ll y e x p lo re th e im p a c t o f p o w e r a n d p o litic a l p r o c e s s e s o n th e s ta tu s o f w o m e n in m a n a g e m e n t.

c a n a c t to d is e m p lo w e r w o m e n , o r d e tr a c t fr o m th e ir a b ility to m a n a g e s u c c e s s f u lly

h a v e b e e n e x te n s iv e ly d o c u m e n te d 5.

5 Kanter R (1977)

Men a n d Women o f the Corporation, N e w Y o r k , B a s i c B o o k s , M a r s h a ll J . " I s s u e s o f I d e n t i t y

f o r W o m e n M a n a g e r s " in C l u t t e r b u c k a n d D i v i d e , 1 9 8 7 , D a v i d s o n M & c o o p e r , C ( 1 9 9 2 )

Shattering the G lass

V o l . 5 , N o . 1, A u g 1 9 9 7 © C e n t r e f o r I n d o n e s ia n A c c o u n t i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t R e s e a r c h V o l . 5 , N o . 1, A u g 1 9 9 7 © C e n t r e f o r I n d o n e s ia n A c c o u n t i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t R e s e a r c h

s ty le s ( W h it e , 1 9 89 ). 'S ty le ' s e e m s to b e a h o li s tic c o n c e p t th a t p e r m its e le m e n ts s u c h a s te a m w o r k , d e c is io n m a k in g , u s e o f p o w e r a n d a u th o rity , le a d e rs h ip , in te r p e r s o n a l s k ills, a n d so o n to b e in te rw o v e n w ith it, a n d th a t w o m e n d o fin d th a t

th e ir s ty le s a r e d if f e r e n t fro m th e s te r e o ty p ic a lly 'm a le ' m a n a g e r ia l s ty le (G r im w o o d & P o p p le s to n e , 1 9 93, p. 105),.

L o d e n ( 1 9 8 5 ) lists th e m a n a g e r ia l s ty le s o r m e n a n d w o m e n , a s sh e se e s th e m , a s fo llo w s :

M a n a g e m e n t S t y le s o f W o m e n

S t y le o f F u n c t i o n i n g

Masculine Model

Feminine Model

O p e r a tin g S ty le

C o o p e r a tiv e O r g a n is a tio n a l S tr u c tu r e

C o m p e titiv e

H ie ra rc h y

Team

Q u a lity O u tp u t P r o b le m S o lv in g

H ig h P e r f o r m a n c e S ta n d a rd s Source: Loden (1985) Fem inine Leadership: H ow to succeed in Business w ithout being one o f the boys, T im e s B o o k s , N e w Y o r k . (p p . 2 6 & 6 3 ).

A n a ly tic a l

D if f e r e n c e s in m a n a g e m e n t sty le o f w o m e n a n d m e n h a v e b e e n fo u n d in s tu d ie s in b o th th e p r iv a te a n d p u b lic s e c to r s (E le y , 1 9 8 6 ; L o d e n , 1 9 8 5; M a r s h a ll,

1 98 4 ). P h illip s o n & R ile y (1 9 8 8 ) u s e d th r e e w a y s o f m e a s u r in g th e s ty le o f w o m e n m a n a g e r s . T h e s e w e re b a s e d o n th e w o m e n m a n a g e r s ' s e lf - d e s c r ip tio n o f th e ir sty le ;

a n e x a m p le o f th e ir w o r k f o r a n a ly s is la te r; a n d a n a n a ly s is o f t h e ir p e r c e p tio n s o n th e u s e o f p o w e r.

S till ( 1 9 8 8 ) s tu d ie d p e r c e p tio n s o f m a n a g e r ia l sty le th o u g h a s u r v e y o f 1093

A u s tr a lia n s fro m s ix d if f e r e n t g ro u p s . S h e fo u n d th a t 6 5 .1 % o f th e re s p o n d e n ts

Ceiling: The Woman Manager,

London, Paul Chapman Publishing , Baker, M (1991) "Reciprocal Accomodation"

The jo u rn a l o f Business Comunication 28.2.

V o l . 5 , N o . 1, A u g 1 9 9 7 © C e n t r e f o r I n d o n e s ia n A c c o u n t i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t R e s e a r c h

86 G e n d e r in M a n a g e m e n t : A S o c i o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e

sta te d th a t th e s ty le s o f m a le a n d fe m a le m a n a g e rs d iffe re d a s a g a in s t a lo w 2 8 .4 % s a y in g th a t th e re is n o d if f e r e n c e in sty le s. 5 1 .8 % o f th e to ta l s a m p le re s p o n d e n ts

h a v e s ta te d th a t th e y p r e f e r to h a v e a m a le b o s s (S till 1 9 88, p. 4 9 ) . F ro m th e re s p o n s e s sh e re c e iv e d sh e c la s s ifie d th e ty p ic a l p e r c e p tio n s o f f e m a le a n d m a le a n d id e a l m a n a g e m e n t s ty le s a s fo llo w s:

Male, Female and Ideal Management Styles

Male Management

Female Management

Ideal Management

C o m p e titiv e

F r ie n d ly S o u rc e : S till, L .V (1 9 8 8 ) Becom ing a Top Woman Manager,

H o n e st

A lle n & U n w in , S y d n e y , p. 50.

Gender s te r e o ty p e s

c u ltu r a lly approved

F ir s tly , it is s u g g e s te d th a t m e n ta lk m o re th a n w o m e n . M a r tin W illis (1 9 9 0 ) o b s e r v e d th a t in a m e e tin g w ith an e q u a l n u m b e r o f w o m e n a n d m e n , th e m e n m a d e n in e ty e ig h t c o n tr ib u tio n s , th e w o m e n fo rty . In a d d itio n , th e m e n te n d e d to s p e a k fo r lo n g e r th a n w o m e n . Z im m e rm a n & W e s t (1 9 7 5 ) , fo u n d th a t 8 % o f in te r r u p tio n s in m ix e d g e n d e r c o n v e r s a tio n s w e r e m a d e b y m e n . I f w o m e n u s u a lly a llo w th e m s e lv e s to b e in te r r u p te d th is c a n b e se e n as a s u c c e s s fu l te c h n iq u e fo r m e n to g a in m o re in

a ir ti m e fo r th e m s e lv e s a n d to s ile n c e w o m e n . T a n n e n (1 9 9 2 ) ta k e s iss u e w ith th e

g e n e r a lity o f th e s e fin d in g s, a r g u in g th a t g e n d e r s te r e o ty p e s m a y c r e a te d if f e r e n t s itu a tio n s in th e p u b lic a n d p riv a te d o m a in . T h e g e n d e re d c o n tro l o f a irtim e m a y

a d v a n ta g e m e n a t w o rk , a n d th e y m a y h a v e d o m in a n c e o v e r is s u e s a n d ju d g m e n ts

V o l. 5 , N o . 1. A u g 1 9 9 7 © C e n t r e f o r I n d o n e s ia n A c c o u n t i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t R e s e a r c h V o l. 5 , N o . 1. A u g 1 9 9 7 © C e n t r e f o r I n d o n e s ia n A c c o u n t i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t R e s e a r c h

h e o b s e r v e d te n d e d to e x p re s s an a u th o rita tiv e o p in io n o r m a k e a fa c tu a l s ta te m e n t, r a th e r th a n a s k q u e s ti o n s o r e x p re s s a p e rs o n a l p o in t o f v ie w .

T h e g ro w in g r e s e a r c h on c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d m a n a g e m e n t s ty le s, a n d on

g e n d e r d if f e r e n c e s in th e w a y s m a le a n d f e m a le m a n a g e rs e x e r t m a n a g e r ia l in flu e n c e a n d le a d e rs h ip , w ill a d d to o u r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e p e r s o n a l p o litic a l r e s o u r c e s th a t m a n a g e r s e m p lo y a t w o rk .

G e n d e r a n d in te re s t G ro u p L o b b y in g

In d iv id u a ls in c re a s e th e p e rs o n a l p o w e r th a t th e y c a n e x e r c is e b y m o b ilis in g to g a in s u p p o r t fro m o th e rs . L o b b y g r o u p s a n d p re s s u re g r o u p s h a v e b e e n u s e d b y w o m e n in m a n a g e m e n t to in c re a s e th e ir in flu e n c e in a c h ie v in g re s u lts.

T h e s u c c e s s fu l im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e n o n - d is c r im in a to r y p o li c ie s th a t a re p u t in p la c e b y c o r p o r a te o r g o v e r n m e n t p o lic y m a k e r s m a y r e q u ir e th e p r e s s u r e o f

g ro u p s u p p o r t w ith in th e o r g a n is a tio n . C o llin s o n et al ( 1 9 9 0 ) s tu d ie d th e

e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f th e B ritis h a n ti- d is c r im in a tio n law s tw e n ty y e a r s a f te r th e y w e re

f ir s t e s ta b lis h e d . T h e y n o te d th a t p o litic a l a llia n c e s b e tw e e n p r o f e s s io n a l E E O o f f ic e r s , p e r s o n n e l m a n a g e m e n t p r o f e s s io n a ls a n d tr a d e u n io n is ts w e re o f te n n e c e s s a r y i f a g r ie v a n c e b r o u g h t u n d e r th e law w a s to b e s u c c e s s fu l 6.

N u m b e r s a r e n e e d e d to p ro v id e th e so c ia l s u p p o rt to c la im le g itim a c y fo r u n f a m ilia r a s s e r tio n s . N u m e r ic a l stre n g th le n d s c r e d ib ility to an a r g u m e n t b o th to w a v e r e r s o n th e c la im a n t's sid e a n d to th e m o re s y m p a th e tic o f o u ts id e rs . Is o la te d w o m e n o r m in o r ity r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s d o n o t h a v e th e s o c ia l r e s o u r c e s to re s o c ia lis e

g ro u p s to a c c e p t o r c o n fo rm to d if f e r e n t p o in ts o f v ie w . T h e v a lu e o f p r e s s u r e g ro u p lo b b y in g c a n b e s e e n in th e d ra m a tic rise in th e fig u re s fo r w o m e n m a n a g e r s in S in g a p o re . T h e A s s o c ia tio n fo r W o m e n fo r A c tio n a n d R e s e a rc h ( A W A R E ) in S in g a p o r e la u n c h e d re s e a r c h p r o je c ts a n d h e ld fo ru m s c o v e r in g im p o r ta n t a s p e c ts o f w o m e n 's liv e s a n d e x p e r ie n c e s , su c h as c a r e e r s, se x u a l h a r a s s m e n t, p o r tr a y a l in th e m e d ia , a n d w o m e n 's le g a l sta tu s. T h is a c tiv ity is c r e d ite d a s h a v in g h a d a s ig n if ic a n t im p a c t in p r o m o tin g c h a n g e . (C h a n , 19 8 8 )

6 Collinson, D. Knights, D & Collinson, M (1990)

M anaging to Discrim inate Routledge, London pi97

V o l. 5 , N o . 1, A u g 1 9 9 7 © C e n t r e f o r I n d o n e s ia n A c c o u n t i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t R e s e a r c h

88 G e n d e r in M a n a g e m e n t : A S o c i o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e

A s w o m e n m o b ilis e to r e m o v e w h a t th e y se e a s d is c r im in a to r y p o lic ie s a n d p r a c tic e s a t w o rk , th e ir re la tio n s h ip to th e e a r lie r p re s s u r e g r o u p s w ith s im ila r

f u n c tio n s h a s p r o v e d a m b ig u o u s . T ra d e u n io n s a r e s tr u c tu re d to r e p r e s e n t c la s s a n d o c c u p a tio n a l in te r e s ts th a t s o m e tim e s a s s is t a n d s o m e tim e s c o n f lic t w ith g e n d e r iss u e s . W o m e n h a v e th e re f o r e te n d e d to fo c u s th e ir p o litic a l a c tiv ity o n a tte m p ts to

c h a n g e g o v e r n m e n t le g is la tio n o r o r g a n is a tio n a l a d m in is tr a tio n , r a th e r th a n u s e th e in d u s tr ia l b a r g a in in g o f tr a d iti o n a l in d u s tr ia l r e la tio n s a c tiv itie s ( P a lm e r 1 9 9 3 a).