The B ureaucratic Process o f M anagem ent O u r f ir s t p e r s p e c tiv e o n m a n a g e m e n t fo c u s e s o n a d m in is tr a tio n a n d th e

1. The B ureaucratic Process o f M anagem ent O u r f ir s t p e r s p e c tiv e o n m a n a g e m e n t fo c u s e s o n a d m in is tr a tio n a n d th e

e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e p r o g r a m s a n d p ro c e d u r e s th a t a r e d e s ig n e d to c o n tro l o r g a n is a tio n a l life . A d m in is tr a tiv e c o n tro ls lie a t th e h e a r t o f o u r a b ility to b u ild

f o r m a l o r g a n is a tio n s in w h ic h th e a c tiv itie s o f la rg e n u m b e rs o f p e o p le a r e c o ­ o r d in a te d to w a r d s th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f sp e c if ie d g o a ls. R e e d (1 9 8 9 , p p . 2 - 6 ) re f e r r e d to th is p e r s p e c tiv e o n m a n a g e m e n t a s th e 'te c h n ic a l' p e r s p e c tiv e , w h ic h se e s m a n a g e m e n t a s a fo rm a l s tr u c tu re o f ra tio n a lly d e s ig n e d te c h n ic a l, b u r e a u c ra tic a n d

f in a n c ia l c o n tro ls . U n d e r th is p e r s p e c tiv e m a n a g e m e n t is s e e n a s a n in s tr u m e n ta l to o l, a m e a n s to o b ta in th e e f f ic ie n c ie s n e e d e d to a c h ie v e o r g a n is a tio n a l g o a ls. M o r g a n 's m e ta p h o r o f a n o r g a n is a tio n a l m a c h in e , a n d B o re m a n a n d D e a l's s tr u c tu ra l p e r s p e c tiv e a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith th e s e id e a s. W e p r e f e r to u se th e la b e l o f 'b u r e a u c r a c y ' to d e s c r ib e th is p e rs p e c tiv e , b e c a u s e it c a n th e n b e r e la te d to th e lo n g tr a d itio n o f o r g a n is a tio n a l a n a ly s is th a t s te m m e d fro m W e b e r 's c la s s ic a n a ly s is o f r a tio n a l a d m in is tr a tio n (W e b e r, 1947 tr a n s la tio n ).

A r is in g fr o m W e b e r's a n a ly s is , b u re a u c ra c y c a n be s e e n as a se t o f o r g a n is a tio n a l c o n tro ls d e s ig n e d to m a k e e x p lic it, f o r m a liz e d s tr u c tu re s o f d u tie s

a n d re w a rd s . W e b e r d is c u s s e d v a rio u s b u r e a u c ra tic te c h n iq u e s , w h ic h w e c a n d iv id e in to tw o se ts. F ir s t a r e th o s e w h ic h e s ta b lis h h ie ra r c h ie s o f w o r k re s p o n s ib il itie s , s p e c ia lis e d w o rk ro le s a n d d e ta ile d s y ste m s o f s u p e r v is io n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e m o n ito r in g . S e c o n d ( a n d o fte n ig n o re d in la te r o r g a n is a tio n a l th e o r ie s ) a r e th o s e

w h ic h s p e c if y e q u ita b le a n d m e rito c r a tic p o lic ie s o n re c r u itm e n t, p ro m o tio n ,

d is m is s a l, r e tir e m e n t a n d th e r e w a r d in g a n d d is c ip lin in g o f e m p lo y e e s (s e e P a lm e r,

1 9 8 3). I f w e v ie w m a n a g e m e n t fro m th e b u r e a u c ra tic p e r s p e c tiv e , w h a t lig h t d o e s th is th r o w o n is s u e s o f g e n d e r a n d m a n a g e m e n t?

Bureaucracy A n d Gender W e b e r 's th e o re tic a l w o rk h a s b e e n re v ie w e d b y S y d ie ( 1 9 8 7 ) in th e c o n te x t

o f m o d e m f e m in is m , w h o n o te s th a t W e b e r's a c tio n fra m e w o rk , a n d h is d e fin itio n o f p o w e r a r e 's e x n e u tra l'. H o w e v e r W e b e r's id e a l ty p e m o d e l o f p a tria r c h y r e s te d o n w h a t w e re r e g a r d e d a s 'n a tu ra l' s tr u c tu re s o f m a le d o m in a n c e . S y d ie a rg u e s th a t

p a tria r c h y la y a t th e b a s e o f th e o th e r id e a l ty p e s o f d o m in a tio n th a t W e b e r id e n tifie d , a n d th e re f o r e th a t in c lu d e s th e id e a l ty p e m o d e l o f b u r e a u c ra c y (S y d ie ,

1987, p p 8 3 -8 7 ).

V o l. 5 , N o . 1, A u g 1 9 9 7 © C e n t r e f o r I n d o n e s ia n A c c o u n t i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t R e s e a r c h

82 G e n d e r in M a n a g e m e n t : A S o c i o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e

T h e re s e a rc h in to m a n a g e m e n t sty le , r e v ie w e d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th is p a p e r, d e m o n s tr a te s h o w n o tio n s o f a u th o rity h a v e b e e n a s s o c ia te d w ith p e r s o n a lity

a n d b e h a v io u r a l c h a r a c te r is tic s tr a d itio n a lly re g a r d e d a s e x c lu s iv e ly m a le . W e b e r's

c o n c e p t o f b u r e a u c ra c y re s ts th e n o tio n o f ra tio n a l- le g a l a u th o rity . T h is s h o u ld be s o c ia lly n e u tra l, b u t w id e r a s s u m p tio n s a b o u t g e n d e r o r ra c e h e ld b y a c o m m u n ity m a y c o n f lic t w ith th e n o tio n o f a to ta lly n e u tra l, r a tio n a l- le g a l a u th o rity . I f e x te rn a l s o c ia l a ttitu d e s d o d e f in e c e rta in g r o u p s a s in a p p ro p r ia te fo r p o s itio n s o f o r g a n is a tio n a l a u th o rity , th e n th o s e g r o u p s w ill f in d th e y a re n o t g r a n te d th e n o r m a l

le g itim a c y a s s o c ia te d w ith th e ir o ffic e . T h e ir a u th o rity m a y b e s u b je c t to m o re

a tta c k th a n n o r m a l. S e x u a l o r r a c ia l h a r a s s m e n t a n d p o litic a l a tta c k m a y b e s u c c e s s f u lly u s e d a s s tr a te g ie s to re a s s e r t th e s ta tu s q u o a n d c h a lle n g e th e le g itim a te

a u th o rity o f p e o p le w h o d o n o t c o m e fro m th e d o m in a n t so c ia l g r o u p s (e g . D i T o m a s c o , 19 8 9 a n d S h e p p a r d , 1989).

O n th e o th e r h a n d , g iv e n s u f f ic ie n t p o litic a l stre n g th , g r o u p s s u f f e r in g so c ia l

g r e a te r a c c e p ta n c e a n d w e r e m o re lik e ly to r e s u lt in th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f in s titu tio n a l n e g o tia tio n s i f th e y w e r e s o ld w ith b u r e a u c ra tic a r g u m e n ts , f o r e x a m p le o n p r e c e d e n t, c o m p a r a b ility a n d s e n io rity . S u c h a r g u m e n ts c o u ld b e u s e d to in c o rp o r a te u n io n d e m a n d s in to n e w s tr u c tu re s o f s h a r e d o r n e g o tia te d c o n tro l th a t

a lte re d , b u t d id n o t re p la c e , th e b u r e a u c ra tic r e g u la tio n s ( P a lm e r 1 9 83, c h a p te r 10

a n d G o s p e l & P a lm e r 1993, p 194) 2. D is c r im in a te d g r o u p s a rg u e e f f ic ie n c y a n d j u s ti c e to b a c k th e ir c la im s fo r e q u ity . T h e y s e e k th e im p o sitio n o f b u r e a u c ra tic r e g u la tio n s , b u r e a u c ra tic s e le c tio n c r ite r ia a n d fo rm a l a p p o in tm e n t s y s te m s to

e n f o r c e n o n - d is c r im in a to r y d e c is io n m a k in g .

P r in g le (1 9 9 2 ) h a s a n a ly s e d th e s tr a te g ie s u s e d b y w o m e n to w o rk w ith in m a s c u lin e o r g a n is a tio n a l c u ltu re s . S h e n o te s th e r e f o r m is t s tr a te g ie s a d o p te d b y

A u s tr a lia n fe m o c r a ts 3. T h e s e " c o n s ta n tly m o n ito r th e p e rils o f c o - o p tio n a n d

a s s im ila tio n a g a in s t th e ir f e m in is t a g e n d a fo r c h a n g e th r o u g h s o m e ( b u t h o w m u c h )

c o m p ro m is e " . W o m e n w h o w o rk in th is c h a lle n g in g b u t s o m e w h a t u n c o m fo r ta b le p o s itio n d e s c r ib e th r e e ta c tic s a s fo llo w s: 'c a m o u f la g e ' w h e r e b y th e y h id e a n a c tiv is t

a g e n d a b y fir s t w o r k in g h a rd to g a in r e s p e c t fro m th e o r g a n is a tio n ; th e 'd o u b le a g e n t' ta c tic , a n d f in a lly , th e 'p in c e r' m o v e m e n t b e tw e e n th e p r e s s u r e w ith in th e o r g a n is a tio n to c o n fo rm to o ld s ta n d a r d s , a n d th e p r e s s u r e w ith o u t th e o r g a n is a tio n to p r o m o te r e fo rm 4. S im ila r p r o b le m s fa c e d th e e a r ly u n io n re p r e s e n ta tiv e s w h o

2 Gospel & Palmer 1993 pi 94, or Palmer (1983) chapter 10 for a discussion of the impact of procedent, seniority

a n d r a t i o n a li t y in t h e c o l l e c t i v e

bargaining that structured work.

3 F e m o c r a t s h a v e b e e n d e f i n e d a s w o m e n w h o s e b u r e a u c r a t ic o r g a n i s a t i o n a l r o l e s h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d b y t h e v a r i o u s state and federal Equal Opportunity laws 4 S e e a l s o M c K i n l a y R , ( 1 9 9 0 ) " F e m in is t s in t h e B u r e a u c r a c y "

Women's Studies Journal, 6(1/2) pp72-95.

V o l . 5 , N o . 1, A u g 1 9 9 7 © C e n t r e f o r I n d o n e s ia n A c c o u n t i n g a n d M a n a g e m e n t R e s e a r c h

T h e I n t e r n a t io n a l J o u r n a l o f A c c o u n t i n g a n d B u s i n e s s S o c i e t y 8 3

w o r k e d to e s ta b lis h in d u s tr ia l r e la tio n s s y ste m s o f c o lle c tiv e b a r g a in in g o r

c o m p u ls o r y a rb itra tio n . T h e y b a la n c e d ra d ic a l a n d r e f o r m in g a g e n d a s a g a in s t a p e r c e iv e d n e e d to g a in le g itim a c y a n d a c c e p ta n c e fro m th o s e th e y w e re tr y in g to in flu e n c e . R a tio n a l-le g a l a r g u m e n ts w e r e b a c k e d b y e c o n o m ic s a n c tio n s . F in a lly , n e w in d u s tr ia l re la tio n s s tr u c tu re s w e r e b u ild to e s ta b lis h n e w ru le s th a t w e re m u tu a lly a g r e e d b y th e o ld p ro ta g o n is ts , o n is su e s lik e th e p ric e o f la b o u r a n d h o u rs

o f w o rk .

A d v o c a te s o f g e n d e r e q u a lity h a v e u se d b u r e a u c ra tic , r a tio n a l le g a l

a r g u m e n ts a n d h a v e m o b ilis e d p o litic a l r a th e r th a n e c o n o m ic s a n c tio n s in th e ir

c a m p a ig n s . T h e s ig n if ic a n c e o f su c h b u r e a u c ra tic a n d p o litic a l a c tio n is a p p a r e n t in th e fig u r e s c o m p a r in g th e p o s itio n o f w o m a n in m a n a g e m e n t in d if f e r e n t c o u n trie s . In th e g e n d e r, r a th e r th a n th e in d u s tr ia l r e la tio n s a re a , th is a c tio n h a s r e s u lte d in n e w le g is la tio n a n d a d m in is tr a tiv e p o lic y - m a k in g , r a th e r th a n c o lle c tiv e b a r g a in in g o r m a rk e t m e c h a n is m s to im p le m e n t c h a n g e .