Concerning the limitation of the problem of this study that is to analyze declarative sentences in the two languages by comparing the patterns, in this
research the writer states the problem as follows: 1. What are the differences between Indonesian and English
declarative sentences based on Contrastive Analysis? 2. What are the similarities between Indonesian and English
declarative sentences based on Contrastive Analysis? 3. How are the errors made by the students in making the declarative
sentences?
E. Objective of the Study
The objective of this study is to see what the differences and similarities between declarative sentences in the Indonesian language and English
language are like based on the Contrastive Analysis study, through analyzing and comparing the patterns of declarative sentences in both languages, and
also to know how the errors happened among the students in making the declarative sentences through analyzing the students’ translation.
F. Significance of the Study
The significance of this study is to compare declarative sentences between Indonesian and English languages, in order to get information about their
differences and similarities. Then allow for predicting the difficulties faced by the students and errors that usually made by them. Knowing the differences
and similarities will be helpful for the teacher and the student. It helps teacher in considering how to teach the materials to the learner in the teaching
process; and it helps students to comprehend more about the materials so that they get easy in leaning process. In addition, this will be helpful also for the
readers who have curiosity in the materials.
CHAPTER II
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK F.
Contrastive Analysis
Contrastive Analysis is one of the methods that can be used for helping people who learn other language in finding some differences and similarities
between source language and target language that usually led to some difficulties in learning process encountered by the learner.
Actually Contrastive Analysis consists of two words, Contrastive and Analysis
. The meaning of word Contrastive [k n tras’tiv] is ‘of or pertaining to the study of the similarities and differences between languages or dialects
without reference to their origins.”
8
It shows us that contrastive constitutes a process to find both similarities and differences between languages contrasted.
And the word Analysis is a transcription of the ancient Greek
analusis, a breaking up from ana- up, throughout + lysis a loosening. It means the process of breaking a
complex topic or substance into smaller
parts to gain a better understanding of it.
9
From the etymology definition above, it seems that Contrastive Analysis constitutes the process of study two languages concerned their differences and
similarities in particular aspect in order to grasp the aspect itself. Moreover Jacek Fisiak roughly defined “Contrastive Analysis is a sub
discipline of linguistics that is deals with the comparison of two or more languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities that hold
between them.”
10
Then, as far as Tadeus Zabrocki’s concerned “Contrastive studies are assumed to be a part of applied linguistics and should direct the
comparison of two languages toward some specific non-linguistic purpose, such as inference errors.” In addition, Stigg Johansson in his report from the
project Languages in Contrast no. 3, October 2000, stated “Contrastive
8
Random House Webster’s College Dictionary, 2001, New York: Random House, Inc.
9
Analysis, in Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved April 9, 2009, from http:en.wikipedia.orgwikiAnalysis
, p. 1.
10
Jacek Fisiak ed., 1981, Contrastive Linguistics and the Language Teacher, Oxford: Pergamon Press, p. 1.
linguistics is the systematic comparison of two or more languages, with the aim of describing their similarities and differences.”
11
Then, the similar definition found in A Glossary of Applied Lingustics by Alan Davies, he simply stated that Contrastive Analysis makes comparison
between Lx source language and Ly target language.
12
Based on the definitions above it would be said that Contrastive Analysis is a method used to contrast between two or more languages concerning their
differences and similarities among the languages. Contrastive Analysis was used extensively in the field of
Second Language Acquisition
SLA in the 1960s and early 1970s, as a method of explaining why some features of a
Target Language were more difficult to
acquire than others. Therefore, the difficulty in mastering certain structures in a
second language L2 depended on the difference between the learners
mother language L1 and the language they were trying to learn.
13
It shows that the differences of source language mother tongue and target language
have significance roles in process of mastering the target language. However the theoretical foundations for what became known as the
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis were formulated in Lado
s Linguistics Across Cultures
. In this book, Lado claimed that those elements which are similar to [the learners] native language will be simple for him, and those elements that
are different will be difficult.
14
This involved describing the languages, comparing them and predicting learning difficulties.
Next, Aarts and Wekker described some assumptions related to contrastive analysis as stated in Jacek Fisiak’s book editor, they are:
1. The process of acquiring a second language is made difficult by interference;
11
Stigg Johansson, 2000, Contrastive Linguistics and Corpora. Retrieved May 7, 2009, from
http:www.hf.uio.noforskningsprosjektersprikdocspdfsjjohansson2.pdf , p. 1.
12
Alan Davies, 2005, A Glossary of Applied Linguistics, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd., p. 28.
13
Contrastive Analysis,
retrieved May
7, 2009,
from http:en.wikipedia.orgwikiContrastive_Analysis
, p. 1.
14
Keith Johnson, 2001, An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching, Edinburgh: Pearson Education Limited, p. 60.
2. A systematic comparison of the student’s native language with the language to be acquired should reveal the differences as well as
similarities; 3. On the basis of such a comparison it should be possible to predict what
students will find difficult and what he will find easy; 4. Such a comparison can serve as a basis for the construction of
adequate teaching materials.
15
It was expected that once the areas of potential difficulty had been mapped out through Contrastive Analysis, it would be possible to design language
courses more efficiently and to predict and describe the patterns which will cause difficulty in learning and those that will not cause difficulty.
Actually the objective of the comparison may vary. As Johansson and Hofland 1994 stated language comparison is of great interest in a theoretical
as well as an applied perspective. It reveals what is general and what is language specific and is therefore important both for the understanding of
language in general and for the study of the individual languages compared.
16
Tomas P. Krzeszowski, with his Contrastive Analysis in a New Dimension
, explained that the linguistics nature of elements selected for comparison is strictly dependent upon a particular linguistics theory employed
in the description of the compared languages. These elements can be system phonological, morphological, syntactic, etc. or subsystem plosives, personal
pronouns, non-finite clauses, etc. in L1 and L2.
17
And in this research, the writer interested in comparing the element of system between the two
languages contrasted, particularly in the term of sentence pattern, exactly the term of declarative sentences. In view of it is possible to conduct research into
a comparison of specific grammatical rules in L1 and L2.
18
Hence, the knowledge may helpful for the teaching process, such as in designing the method for the teacher, to make it ease. Since from the study
might known about the errors that will occur among the learners. The study
15
Jacek Fisiak ed., 1990, Further Insight into contrastive Analysis, vol. 30, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, p. 165.
16
Stig Johansson, 2000, Contrastive Linguistics and Corpora …p. 1.
17
Jacek Fisiak ed., 1981, Contrastive Linguistics and the Language Teacher, … p. 71.
18
Jacek Fisiak ed., 1981, Contrastive Linguistics and the Language Teacher, ... p. 71.
compares some aspects between languages in view of comparison is a good way of highlighting the characteristics of the things compared. The contrastive
study defines these differences and at the same time makes the description of the individual languages more precise.
Carl James explained there is the general principle of executing Contrastive Analysis that involves two steps: description and comparison;
which are taken in that order.
19
So in this study the writer would provide some description about the materials analyzed in both languages, and followed by
comparing them. Moreover one that has played a major in the CA debate since the 1950s is
a contrastive grammar. A contrastive grammar of two languages may be defined as an attempt to systematically compare the grammars of these
languages.
20
Then this research concerns with one of grammar aspects, sentences, particularly the declarative sentences. Next the declarative
sentences between the two languages, Indonesian and English, are going to be compared; it is a kind of contrastive grammar, following some determined
procedure. And Robert Lado explained that there are procedures in comparing two
grammatical structures:
21
general procedure, the analyzing of the foreign language and compare it structure by structure with the native language. And
the other is more specific procedure, since it needed to illustrate the procedure in greater detail. This consists of three steps:
1. Locate the best structural description of the language involved 2. Summarize in compact outline form all the structure
3. Actual comparison of the two language structures, pattern by pattern In doing Contrastive Analysis of the two languages systems, then, Rudolf
Filipovic stated there are several primary data that needed: a grammatical
19
Carl James, 1980, Contrastive Analysis, Essex: Longman, p. 63.
20
Jacek Fisiak ed., 1990, Further Insight into contrastive Analysis, … p. 163.
21
Betty Wallace Robinett and Jacquelyn Schachter eds., 1983, Second Language Learning; Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis, and Related Aspects
, Ann Arbour: The University of Michigan Press, pp. 15-19.
descriptions of L1 and L2 which are very suitable for the initial stage CA; b learners’ errors which help to develop further the analysis and its scope; c a
corpus of L1 and L2, i.e. a bidirectional corpus, which can ideally satisfy the requirements for CA; d an unidirectional corpus which does not satisfy the
requirements for CA as perfectly as a bidirectional one.
22
Henceforth this research provides the description of the matter that analyzed -the sentences in both languages, which is followed by the
comparison of the corpus between the languages. And this research is also supported by the data from the student’s work in translating the sentences
provided in the source language into the target language, which can show the errors they made.
Moreover most contrastive linguists have either explicitly or implicitly made use of translation as a means of establishing cross-linguistic
relationships, and in his book on contrastive analysis Carl James reaches the conclusion that translation is the best basis of comparison: We conclude that
translation equivalence, of this rather rigorously defined sort including interpersonal and textual as well as ideational meaning is the best available
TC Tertium Comparationis for CA contrastive analysis.
23
So, next the technique of translation equivalence is going to be used in this research.
Refers to Peter Newmark 1988, translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written massage andor statement in one language by the
same message andor statement in another language.
24
And another definition of translation is converting one language SL to another TL so that the TL
could convey the intended message in SL. In other words, it is a process through which the translator decodes SL and encodes his understanding of the
TL form.
25
In short, the definitions of translation above indicate that
22
Jacek Fisiak ed., 1984, Contrastive Linguistics Prospects and Problems, Berlin: Mouton Publisher, p. 114.
23
Stig Johansson, 2000, Contrastive Linguistics and Corpora. … p. 4.
24
Peter Newmark, 1988, Approaches to Translation, New York: Prentice Hall, p. 7.
25
Translation ,
retrieved June
13, 2009,
from http:www.translationdirectory.comarticle971.htm, p. 3.
translation is a process of replacing a message of one language to another that must have similar or equivalent meaning.
Moreover, by the time learner learns foreign language, heshe consciously or not would make such translating the message from target language to native
language or vice versa. The process must be happened naturally to get comprehension about the messages. In this case, the data from the students
show their understanding about the sentences that they should convert into target language.
However, in doing the translation, the learners certainly do some procedures, as Nida and Taber define one of the system of translation consists
of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages, they are:
26
1. Analysis, in which the surface structure i.e. the message as given in language A is analyzed in terms of the grammatical relationship and the
meaning of the words and combinations of words, 2. Transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the
translator from language A to language B, 3. Restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to
make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. Consequently, in the matter of translation, having the same meaning of the
messages in either languages is important, or the equivalence meaning which presented in different codes -both languages. Since one of the most serious
problems of contrastive studies is the problem of equivalence. Vinay and Darbelnet view a definition of equivalence in translation or equivalence-
oriented translation as a procedure which replicates the same situation as in the original, whilst using completely different wording.
27
In other words, the equivalence means the same meaning through presented in different words.
Therefore in assessing translation equivalence between source text and target text, J. C. Catford offers other dimension of correspondence, namely
26
Eugene A. Nida and Charles R. Taber, 1982, The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill, p. 33.
27
Vanessa Leonardi, 2003, Equivalence in Translation: Between Myth and Reality, Translation Journal, Vol. 4, No. 4, October 2000. Retrieved June 19, 2009, from
http:accurapid.comjournal14equiv.htm , p. 2.
textual equivalence that is any TL text or portion of text is observed to be the equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text.
28
So the writer uses translation equivalence in analyzing the data, since it as the TCs for grammatical studies. James considers translation equivalence to
the best TC for CA, provided it embraces both semantic and pragmatic equivalence.
29
Finally in analyzing and comparing the declarative sentences next the writer is going to provide thirty five sentences in Indonesian language, which
are given to the Indonesian learner. Then they have to write the translations in English. The errors they made were analyzed, to see which errors could be
attributed to transfer.
G. Sentence
