Volume 10, Number 4, April 2016 (Serial Number 95)
1. Introduction glucose levels may cause a wide range of metabolic disturbances in vascular cells and organ tissues of
Diabetes mellitus is one of the most costly diabetic patients [3]. More research is directed towards burdensome chronic diseases of our time and is a medicinal plants that are considered as an important condition that is increasing in epidemic population in source of many herbal substances with antidiabetic the whole word. Diabetes mellitus is regarded as a group and antioxidant activities. The present study depicts of metabolic diseases characterized by an elevated the therapeutic effect of Zygophyllum cornutum on blood glucose level resulting from defects in insulin metabolic disturbances and oxidative stress in heart as secretion, insulin action or both [1]. Hyperglycemia, one of the target organs in diabetes mellitus. resulting from uncontrolled glucose regulation, is
widely recognized as the causal link between diabetes,
2. Materials and Methods
oxidative stress and diabetic complications [2]. Elevated
2.1 Preparation of Zygophyllum cornutum Methanolic Extract (ZCME)
Corresponding author: Awatif Boumaza, Ph.D., assistant professor, research field: cellular and molecular toxicology.
The preparation method of the methanolic extract
Therapeutic Effect of Zygophyllum cornutum on Metabolic Disturbances, Oxidative Stress
in Heart Tissue and Histological Changes in Myocardium of Streptozotocin-induced Diabetic Rats
involved submitting the grounded plant (100 g) to
2.6 Statistical Analysis
extraction with 500 mL of methanol (70%) for 10 The results were expressed as means ± SD (standard days followed by filtration through Whatman no 1 deviation) of six rats per group and the statistical filter paper. After the extraction, the solvent was significance was evaluated by one way analysis of evaporated and then the methanolic extract was stored variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey test using the at -20 °C. INSTAT2 MS-DOS system. Mean values were
2.2 Animals considered statistically significant when P < 0.05. Male Wistar rats weighing 130-170 g and housed in
3. Results and Discussion
clean cages under appropriate conditions were used. 3.1 Glycemia and Lipid Profile
The animals were injected with streptozotocin (55 mg/kg, i.p). Three days after injection, the rats with
After the experimental period (6 weeks), the results fasting blood glucose higher than 180 mg/dL were
showed increased levels of blood glucose, total used for the experiment.
cholesterol (TC), LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) and triglyceride (TG) in the diabetic rats. On the other
2.3 Drug Administration and Experimental Design hand, the level of HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) The extract was administered orally at a dose of 700
decreased in this group. However, oral administration mg/kg body wt/10 mL. The rats were divided into five
of ZCME improved significantly serum glucose (Fig. 1) groups. Six rats were used in each group:
and lipid profile (Table 1).
Group 1: Normal Control (NC) rats received 10 In our study, single intraperitoneal injection of mL/kg NaCl solution (0.9%).
streptozotocin (55 mg/kg body weight) induced Group 2: Normal Treated (NT) rats received 700
diabetes after 3 days. After six weeks of treatment, mg/10 mL/kg ZCME.
glycemia in control diabetic rats reached a rate of 420 Group 3: Diabetic Control (DC) rats received 10
± 81.05 mg/dL. In diabetic rats treated with ZCME, a mL/kg NaCl solution (0.9%).
significant decrease of glycemia was noted from the Group 4: Diabetic Treated (DT) rats received 700
second week and the value recorded after six weeks mg/10 mL/kg ZCME.
was 145 ± 12.3 mg/dL. The hypoglycaemic effect of Group 5: Diabetic rats received 5 units/kg of insulin
ZCME may be due to polar substances groups [7]. The (DIS). studied plant is rich in saponins, for which a strong
antidiabetic activity is assigned according to the
2.4 Biochemical Assay
previous [8].
Serum glucose and lipid profile parameters were Lipid profile became a useful parameter through its determined using specific kits. Oxidative stress
use in the diagnosis of several cardiovascular diseases parameters are measured by specific methods: and control of diabetic patients [9]. The results of our malonyl dialdéhyd (MDA) [4], catalase activity (CAT)
study showed a significant increase in TC (+36.4%), [5] and reduced glutathione (GSH) [6].
TG (+44.9%) and LDL-C (+53.37%) associated with a remarkable decrease in HDL-C (-15.16%) in diabetic
2.5 Histological Analysis rats. ZCME improved significantly lipid profile. We
The histological study of the myocardium was noted an increase of HDL-C known as good cholesterol performed by the eosine & hematoxyline method
[10] because of their beneficial role against according to an applied protocol in the laboratory of
cardiovascular complications mainly atherosclerosis anatomopathology at CHU Constantine, Algeria.
[11]. In addition, we noted a decrease of TC, TG and
T Therapeutic E Effect of Zygo ophyllum cor rnutum on Me etabolic Distu urbances, Ox xidative Stres ss in He eart Tissue a nd Histologic cal Changes in Myocardiu um of Strepto ozotocin-indu uced Diabetic Rats
NC: 10ml/k kg NaCl 400
NT:700mg/ /kg ZCME 300
cemia (mg/dL) DC:10ml/kg g NaCl Gly
200 DT; 700mg/ /kg ZCME 100
DIS: 5U/kg Insulin
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Time (w week)
Fig. 1 Blood d glucose evolu ution in norm al control (NC C) rats, norma al treated (NT) ) rats, diabetic c control (DC) ) rats, diabetic c treated (DT) rats and insuli in diabetic trea ated (DIS) rats s during 6 week ks.
Table 1 Ser um lipid profi le after 6 week ks treatment.
Parameters Norma al control
Diabetic treate ed Insulin n diabetic (NC)
Normal treate d Diabet tic control
treated d (DIS) TC (mg/dL)
98.28 ± 4.97 * ** 98.14 ± ± 2.53 ** TG (mg/dL)
45.43 ± 3.62 * *** 52.14 ± ± 3.31 ** HDL-C (mg/d dL) 34.14 ± 4.01 ±
39.28 ± 2.6 ** * 41.71 ± 3.05 *** ± LDL-C (mg/d dL) 39.45 ± ± 3.87
49.91 ± 6.35 * *** 46 ± 2. .21 *** Data are expre essed as mean ± ± SD (n = 6). G Group 3 (DC) c compared to gr roup 1 (NC). G roup 4 (DT) an nd group 5 (DIS S) compared to o
group 3 (DC) (*) 0.05 > P >
0.01, (***) P < < 0.001 .
pro -atherogenic properties [1 13]. The imp provement of f the lipid profile m may result fro om changes i in lipoprotein n
DIS met tabolism [14] ] or by increa sing the LDL L uptake [15]. .
2.5 The relation T nship betw een dyslipi idemia and d DT
5.02 card diovascular d diseases is par rticularly wel ll established d DC
[7, 8]. The cardi iovascular ris sk can be est timated using g
NT the Framingham m ratio: [Tota al Cholestero l/HDL-C]. It t
NC part ticularly incr reases when this ratio is over than 5. . Figu ure 2 shows cardio-vascu ular risk estim mation in the e
0 2 4 6 diff ferent groups .
(TC C/HDL-C) S Studies have s shown that th he decrease o of lipid levels s
Fig. 2 Card dio-vascular ri sk estimation in normal con ntrol
dur ing diabet tes reduces s the ca ardiovascular r
(NC), normal l treated (NT) ), diabetic cont trol (DC), dia betic
com mplications risk [2]. T The Framing gham study y
treated (DT) and insulin dia abetic treated (DIS) rats.
part ticularly pop pularized the e ratio [TC/H HDL-C]: the e LDL-C calle ed bad choles sterol [10]. Hi igh and persis stent
card diovascular r risk increase es particularl ly when this s LDL-C leve el in blood in ncrease their susceptibilit ty to
rati o exceeds 5. In our study y, [TC/HDL- -C] = 5.02 in n oxidation b y free radic cals [12], th ereby produ ucing
diab betic rats, so i it is on the edg ge of danger. Diabetic rats s
oxidized L LDL chara acterized b by their h high
trea ated with ZC CME showed d a value clo se to that of f
Therapeutic E T Effect of Zygo ophyllum cor rnutum on Me etabolic Distu urbances, Ox xidative Stres ss
in He eart Tissue a nd Histologic cal Changes in Myocardiu um of Strepto ozotocin-indu uced Diabetic Rats
normal and diabetic rat ts treated w ith insulin. This plan nts flavonoid ds may exert a a protective e effect against t result show ws the preve entive role of Zygophy llum
oxid dative stress d damage in or rgans [6]. cornutum against ca ardiovascular complicat tions
associated w with diabetes.
3.2 Oxidativ ve Stress Para ameters in He eart
) tissue) 80
The evalu uation of he eart oxidative e stress mar rkers
tissue
o was l/g ol/g 60
showed that t MDA conc centration in heart tissue
markedly i (nm ncreased wh hile GSH a and CAT w were (nm
significantly y decreased i in diabetic r rats compare d to
MDA MDA
control nor rmal rats. A After oral a dministration n of ZCME, the e MDA con ncentration w was significa antly reduced in h heart while C CAT and GSH H were mark kedly
normalized ( (Fig. 3 (a); (b b); (c)).
(a)
The evalu uation of oxid dative stress p parameters in n the heart showe ed a signific cant increase of the TBA ARS
level in diab betic rats. A s significant inc crease in cata alase
ssue ti ti
activity was s also noted with remarka able depletio n of
g l/ 25 l/
reduced glut tathione. Oua ali K and his collaborators s [15]
mo 20 ( µ
considered t that this incre ease is a com mpensatory ef ffect
against ox xidative str ress resulti ing from the
GSH GSH 10
accumulatio on of endogen nous H 2 O 2 an nd GSH deple etion.
These param meters are positively im mproved in rats
DC DT treated wit DIS h ZCME w which is ri ich in phen nolic
NC C NT
compounds characterized d by antioxida ant activity.
(b)
3.3 Histolog gical Analysis s
In diabeti ic rats, the histological sections sho owed
tissue) tissue 25
Oedemous r rearrangemen nts, hemorrhag gic suffusion n and vascular co ongestion (Fi ig. 4 (c); (c c1); (c2); (c c3)).
(IU/g (IU/g 20
Myocardium m tissue appe ears very loo ose compare d to
normal cont activity trol rats. In ZCME and insulin diab betic activity
groups, his stological s ections sho wed a nor rmal
myocardium m. Histologi ical examin nation of the
Catalase Catalase
myocardium m performed with eosine & hematoxy yline
DC DT T DIS coloration sh howed differ rent aspects o of damage in n the diabetic gro (c) oup: oedema a, vascular congestion and
NC C NT
Fig. . 3 Oxidativ ve stress para ameters in he eart tissues of f
haemorrhagi ic suffusion.
A significa ant prevention n of
norm mal control (N NC), normal tr reated (NT), di iabetic control l
the oxidativ ve damage w was noted in n diabetic gr roup
(DC C), diabetic tr eated (DT), a and insulin di abetic treated d
(DIS S) rats. (a) MD DA concentrat tion, (b) GSH c concentration, treated with , h ZCME. The ese results m may be due to o the
(c) c catalase activit ty. Results are expressed as m means ± SD (n n
hypoglycem mic and antio oxidant effec cts made by the
= 6) ). DC compar ed to NC. DT T and DIS com mpared to DC. .
plant. Atang gwho and his s collaborator rs suggested that
(**) ) 0.01 > P > 0.0 001, (***) P < 0 0.001.
Therapeutic Effect of Zygophyllum cornutum on Metabolic Disturbances, Oxidative Stress in Heart Tissue and Histological Changes in Myocardium of Streptozotocin-induced Diabetic Rats
MC
A × 100
B X100
100 X100 D
E × 100
CV
HS
HS
C1 ×100 C2 ×400 C3
Fig. 4 Myocardium histology (Hematoxiline & Eosine method). A (normal control rats), B (normal rats treated with ZCME), C [1, 2, 3] (diabetic control rats), D (diabetic rats treated with ZCME), E (diabetic rats treated with insulin). MC: myocardium cells. O: Oedema, VC: vascular congestion, HS: hemorrhagic suffusions.
4. Conclusions
References
In summary, the present study demonstrated an [1] Gillham, B., Papachristodoulou, D. K., and Thomas, J. H. 1997. Will’s Biochemical Basis of Medicine, 235-6, ed 3.
increase of metabolic disturbances in diabetic rats Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann.
associated with oxidative stress in the heart which [2] Anabela, P. R., and CARLOS, M. P. 2006. “Diabetes and results in myocardium damages. This study clearly
Mitochondrial Function: Role of Hyperglycemia and showed that Zygophyllum cornutum may provide a
Oxidative Stress.” In: Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology useful therapeutic option in the reversal of metabolic 212 (2): 167-78. [3] Makowsky, M., Prebtani, A. P. H., Gelfer, M., Manohar,
disturbances and oxidative stress induced cardiac A., and Jones, C. 2012. “Management of Hypertension in dysfunction in diabetes mellitus.
People with Diabetes Mellitus: Translating the 2012
Therapeutic Effect of Zygophyllum cornutum on Metabolic Disturbances, Oxidative Stress
197
in Heart Tissue and Histological Changes in Myocardium of Streptozotocin-induced Diabetic Rats
Canadian Hypertension Education Program Aortic Atheroscleroris Compared with Black Tea in Recommendations into Practice.” Canadian Journal of
Hypercholesterolemic Hamsters.” Nutrition Research 19 Diabetes
36: 345-53.
(8): 1201-14.
[4] Okhawa, H., Ohishi, N., and Yagi, K. 1979. “Assay of [9] Akuyam, S. A., Isah, H. S., and Ogala, W. N. 2007. Lipid Peroxides in Animal Tissue by Thiobarbituric
“Evaluation of Serum Lipid Profile of under Five Reaction.” Anal. Biochem. 95: 351-8.
Nigerian Children.” Annals of African Medicine 6 (3): [5] Clairborne, A. 1985. Catalase Activity, In Handbook of
119-23.
Method for Oxygen Radical Research . Green world, R. A. [10] Masson, O. 2007. Biochimie: Bases biochimique de la ed: boca Raton. Fla CRC press, 283-4.
diététique. 2ème ed: TEC & DOC. ISBN. (330). [6] Ellman, G. 1959. Tissu sulf hydryl groups. Arch Bioclom.
[11] Delattre, J. 2005. Radicaux libres et stress oxydant ed: Biophis.
82: 70-7. TECDOC. Londres-paris-new york, 620. [7] Atangwho, I. J., Ebang, P. E., Eteng, M. U., Eyoung, E.
[12] Perez, C. M. M. 1958. Paris R. Sur une nouvelle plante U., and Obi, A. U. 2007. “Effects of Vernonia
hypoglycémiante, le Zygophyllum cornutum Cosson. amygdolina Del Leaf on Kidney Function of Diabetic
Mémoire présenté à l’Académie de Pharmacie. Paris. rats.” International Journal of Pharmacology 3 (2):
[13] Kakkar, R., Mantha, S. V., Radhi, J., Prasad, K., and 193-48.
Kalra, J. 1993. “Increased Oxidative Stress in Rat Liver [8] Nicolosi, R. J., Lawton, C. W., and T. A. 1999. “Vitamin
and Pancreas during Progression of Streptozotocin-induced E Reduced Plasma LDL-C, LDL Oxidation, and Early
Diabetes.” J. Clin. Sci. 946: 23-32.
Journal of Life Sciences 10 (2016) 198-202
doi: 10.17265/1934-7391/2016.04.005
DAVID PUBLISHING
A Selection Study for Sanitary Landfill Site at Basra City, South of Iraq
1 1 1 2 Wathiq A. Al-Ramdhan 1 , Mahmood S. Thamir , Assaad F. Hamza , Abdulwahab A. Sultan , Ali G. Katea’a ,
Najem Al-Dean A. Al-hajaj 3 , Ayad K. Jirri 1 and Ekhlass B. Zubery 1
1. Southern Technical University, Technical Institute of Basra Environmental Pollution Research Unit, Basra, Iraq 2. Southern Technical University, University Presidency, Basra, Iraq 3. Iraqi Ports Company, Basra, Iraq
Abstract: The selection study for a sanitary landfill site at Basra city (south of Iraq) indicated to choose Al-Barjesia region at chwabedian area which belong to Al-Zubair directorate, using global positioning system (GPS). The measured latitude and longitude axes of this area are 30° 25.4 ′ north and 47° 29′ west. It is located at a distance of about 25 km straight line from the city center. The calculated elevation range of the chwabedian site was obtained to be 5-10 m above sea level, while the depth of plutonic water in the
landfill site is range from 15-25 m. The measured permeability for this site was about 0.75-0.84 mm 3 /min. The evaluation of soil components percentage in the suggested site was listed in table 1, as examined by the international constructional laboratory, at Basra/Iraq. A primarily modern design for chwabedian sanitary landfill was projected and sketched in figure 3.
Key words: Landfill site, solid waste management, leachate.
1. Introduction The solute transport is the most complex subject in the soil physics. It involves water and chemical
Rapid generation of solid waste (SW) resulting movement, chemical interaction and microbial from economic development and population growth transformation. The solute conservation equation that had become one of the most important environmental predicts the process considers three different transport issues of our time. Massive solid waste (MSW) can be processes, advective, diffusive and hydrodynamic processed in one of three ways [1]: 1—Thermal
dispersive flux.
treatment 2—Biological treatment and 3—Landfilling The mechanism underlying adverse reproductive [2, 3]. The solid waste is defined as it is a solid effect due to leachate exposure is not fully known material which is a result of different industrial [7-10]. Choosing the exact scientific methods for processes and continuous human residual. The applied differential survey at an area for sanitary landfill site method for the protection of waste during the healthy and applying it on the selection region to build this sanitary landfill process is a complicated process important public utility is attributed as a health which is belonged to the solid waste services process environmental public service which protect the [4]. Currently a large number of methods, approaches humanity from possible environmental calamities. and modeling have been developed to support The sanitary landfill site can be considered as a decision-making in solid waste management. With the specialized unit for accumulation for different solid large number of methods available, however, it is waste which is convenient to the region for sanitary becoming increasingly difficult for practitioners and landfill through the geotechnical design and decision makers to understand [5, 6]. acceptance for the human population. The presence of
Corresponding author: Wathiq A. Al-Ramdhan, Ph.D., some measurements (or tests) must be included for the
research fields: physics and renewable energy. selection of a sanitary landfill [11] such that: 1—The
A Selection Study for Sanitary Landfill Site at Basra City, South of Iraq
distance from city center must be indicated on the city aim of this study is to indicate a suitable location for a map which including the presence of other conditions
sanitary landfill site at Basra city (south of Iraq) in addition to know the petroleum and archeological
fixed/or restricted on a scientific, environmental, and maps to avoid these regions. 2—Avoiding obviation
healthful bases. A modern landfill design for this the regions located in the winds direction. The
location is projected. It will be mention that it is till breezing up of wind will affect on the city through the
now there is no expert sanitary landfill site at Basra transportation of smell stinking. 3—The selected
governorate.
region must be far away at least ~370 m from any
2. Instrumentation and Measurements
water source or agricultural regions or artesian wells. 4—It is better to select a region with little
Global positioning system (GPS)—Garmin’s transmittance for a sanitary landfill. 5—The regions
enhanced eTrex Vista Cx elevates GPS includes 64 which are much less average rain full quantities per
MB micro SD card for Map source data, has been year can be chosen to avoid residing of the leachate
applied according to Basra governorate map. which contain massive material. A typical section for
Direction and velocity of wind in addition to the sanitary landfills is shown in figure 1.
altitude of water plutonic (underground) from earth’s During the past decade, solid waste (SW) has
surface were calculated using GPS connected to the increased drastically in the state of Iraq, especially
satellites, after choosing of a sanitary landfill site. The after the war of 2003. Most ends up in landfill with
longitudes and widths of this site were also indicated. only a minor percentage being recycled [2, 3, 12]. The
Soil samples were collected from this landfill site by
Fig. 1 A typical section for a sanitary landfill (www.nswma.org).
A Selection Study for Sanitary Landfill Site at Basra City, South of Iraq
Fig. 2 A sketch of the radius of the research circle at Basra City/Iraq.
sand samples system and examined through the accounts for approximately 55% of the total. The international constructional laboratory to know the
calculated amount will need land filling space of about sand percent institutions. Old Basra city was chosen as
465.000 m 2 according to Al-Salem 2009.
a center for the research circle Fig. 2. Our results suggest that a landfill, if well-designed and managed, can be a good neighbor and have no
3. Results and Discussion
statistically measurable negative impact on According to the primarily study done by our unit
surrounding [13].
(Environmental Pollution Research Unit—Southern Chwabedian area at AL-Berjesia has been chosen as Technical University) predicated that about 0.75
a sanitary landfill site (belong to AL-Zubair Million ton (M t ) per year of massive solid material
directorate) using GPS. This area was about 25 km (MSW) were generated at Basra city in the period
straight line distance from city center (position of 1990-2003 which is belong to about 1.8 million people.
creating solid dross). The measured width and It is increased to about 1.65 M t per year after the
longitude axes of the chwabedian area are 30° 25.4 ′ war in the period 2003-2013 due to the increasing of
north and 47° 29 ′ west, respectively. Velocity of the waste generation especially metal waste and plastics.
wind in this site is about 23 km/h north-west. Plutonic While it is projected to increase to about 2.75 M t per
water is in the range (15-25) m from the earth’s year belong to about 5 million people in the period
surface in this site, which is appropriate to establish 2020-2030 due to the increasing of local consumption
the landfill site in order to allow residing of leachate especially the organic waste (food waste) which
of the landfill material.
A Selection Study for Sanitary Landfill Site at Basra City, South of Iraq
Table 1 Soil contents percent ratio at chwabedian site.
Depth (cm)
Clay % 0-30 ~87 ~8 ~5 30-60 ~86.5 ~5.5 ~8
Sand %
Silt %
Fig. 3 A primarily modern design for chwabedian sanitary landfill.
Soil contents percent ratio as examined by gases from the bottom of the site to the surface by soil International constructional laboratory is found as in
pipes, as in Fig. 3.
Table 1.
A periodic examination (each 1 month at least) The average transmittance was about (0.75-0.84)
must be carried out in order to evaluate the mm 3 /min.
environmental action. Also we suggest using this Table 1 indicates that this area can be considered as
landfill site as a Greenland region. It must be mention sandy then the transmittance is high which simply
that this sanitary landfill is established for embedding allow residing of leachate to the plutonic water [14].
the house waste and non-danger waste, while the In order to prevent the liquid leachate infiltration
danger waste must be treated at the created position (slip) from the sand, we suggest that this region can be
and will be disposition by suitable methods. coated with 1—compacted clay layers of about 0.6 m
4. Conclusions
pressed by ~70% with a forced arrangement which allow it to be a little permeability. And 2—using two
Through this study to choose a sanitary landfill at layers of an impermeable polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Basra/south of Iraq, we can conclude the following cover put on the landfill base, each with about 2.5 mm
points:
thick, as in Fig. 3. (1) Chwabedian region at AL-Berjesia (about 25 It is important here to follow some practice steps
km straight line distance from Basra city center) has for the solid waste during the embedding period.
been chosen as a sanitary landfill site, using global Putting a layer of the solid dross and distributed
positioning system (GPS).
over all the area of a sanitary landfill. (2) Velocity of the wind in this region was about 23 Finally the sanitary landfill will be close and
km/h north-west as average.
compress with a clay layer considering going out of (3) Plutonic water is in the range (15-25) m from
A Selection Study for Sanitary Landfill Site at Basra City, South of Iraq
the earth’s surface in this site which is appropriate to EURO-ARAB Conference for the Environment, 33-41, Rostock, Germany, April 2001.
establish the sanitary landfill site. [5] Zurbrügg, C., Caniato, M., and Vaccari, M. 2014. “How
(4) Chwabedian region can be considered as a Assessment Methods can Support Solid Waste sandy site (about 87% sand) with high permeability
Management in Developing Countries.” Acritical Review. (about 0.8 mm 3 /h), as examined by International
Sustainability 6: 545-70. [6] Piles, A., Martinho, G., and Chang, N. B. 2011. “Sold
constructional laboratory at Basra. Waste Management in European Countries; A Review of
(5) It is very important to follow some practice Systems Analysis Techniques.” J. Environ Manag. 92: steps for the solid waste during the embedding period
1033-50.
in order to prevent contamination infiltration into the [7] Zambra, C. E., and Moraga, N. O. 2013. “Heat and Mass soil by coated this sanitary landfill with compacted Transfer in Landfill; Simulation of the Pile Self-heating and of the Soil Contamination.” International Journal of
clay layers and by using an impermeable cover put on Heat and Mass Transfer 66: 324-33. the landfill base, such as polyethylene (HDPE) or
[8] Adedara, I. A., Oyebiyi, O. O., Lawal, T. A., Adesina, A. polyvinyle chloride (PVC) (7).
A., and Farombi, E. O. 2013. “Involvement of Oxidative (6) A primarily modern design for chwobedian Stress in Municipal Landfill Leachate Induced Toxicity in Boar Sperm.” Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 36: 972-8.
sanitary landfill was projected and sketched in Fig. 3. [9] Adedara, I. A., Lawal, T. A., Adesina, A. A., Oyebiyi, O. (7) A periodic examination (each 1 month at least)
O., Ebokaiwe, A. P., and Farombi, E. O. 2014. “Sperm must be carried out in order to evaluate the
Functional Parameters and Erythrocytes environmental action. Oxidant—Antioxidant Imbalance during Municipal Landfill Leachate Treatment with Drawal in Rats.”
Acknowledgments
Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 37: 460-7. [10] Adedara, I. A., Awogbindin, I. O., Adesina, A. A., The authors would like to thank Mr. Ali A. Amara
Oyebiyi, O. O., Lawal, T. A., and Farombi, E. O. 2015. Iraqi Ph.D. student in Australia for his support in this Municipal Landfill leachate—Induced Testicular Oxidative Damage is Associated with Bimetal
work. Accumulation and Endocrine Disruption in Rats.
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Journal of Life Sciences 10 (2016) 203-214
doi: 10.17265/1934-7391/2016.04.006
DAVID PUBLISHING
Disaster Prevention Literacy among School Administrators and Teachers: A Study on the Plan for Disaster Prevention and Campus Network Deployment and Experiment in Taiwan
1 Sung-Chin Chung 2 and Cherng-Jyh Yen 1. Department of Creative Design, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Yunlin, Taiwan
2. Department of Educational Foundations and Leadership, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, USA
Abstract: Taiwan is located at the high-risk region of natural disasters with the frequently occurred earthquakes. The importance of the disaster prevention education on campus is made even more obvious by the fact that natural disasters often occur during the school days. Given the leading roles the school administrators and teachers playing in the disaster prevention education of their pupils, this study purposed to investigate how disaster prevention literacy was among them and how disaster prevention literacy differed across various background variables of them. Furthermore, the current study also examined if disaster prevention literacy changed by participation in the disaster prevention education program. The results suggested that, among three dimensions of disaster prevention literacy (i.e., knowledge, attitude, & skills) the participants were highest on disaster prevention skills and lowest on disaster prevention knowledge. Additionally, three dimensions of disaster prevention literacy of the participants differed by school level, age, years of service, personal disaster experience, and school disaster-stricken status. The participation in the disaster prevention education program was also related to participants’ disaster prevention literacy. The implications of the above findings were discussed and the recommendations were also made for future disaster prevention education programs and research.
Key word: Disaster prevention education on campus, literacy, knowledge, attitude, skills.
1. Introduction prior to the actual disaster occurrence will be more important than the post-disaster remedy [2]. Disaster
Taiwan is located at the disaster-prone Pacific Ring prevention education will lay the indispensable of Fire with the high risk of various natural disasters foundation of disaster prevention and rescues. like earthquakes, typhoons, and so forth. According to Therefore, the United Nations Educational, Scientific Natural Hazards Risk Atlas 2014 released by Verisk and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the United Maplecroft [1], Taiwan was ranked the third Nations International Strategy for Disaster Risk worldwide in terms of the Natural Hazard Reduction (UNISDR) have promoted the disaster Risks—Absolute Economic Exposure Index with the prevention education at school since 2006 with the extreme risk. Therefore, the threat of natural disasters goals of incorporating disaster risk reduction to the lives and properties of Taiwanese people cannot knowledge into relevant sections of school curricula
be stressed enough. and encouraging the application of disaster-resisting As the old saying goes, prevention is better than building codes to school buildings for better campus cure. By the same token, disaster prevention education safety [3]. Taiwanese government has also ardently
pushed for campus disaster prevention education since Corresponding author: Cherng-Jyh Yen, Ph.D., research
field: educational research. 2005 and cultivated many schools as the so-called
Disaster Prevention Literacyamong School Administrators and Teachers: A study on the Plan for
Disaster Prevention and Campus Network Deployment and Experiment in Taiwan
“seed schools” of disaster prevention education [4]. Act [8] in Taiwan, disaster prevention is defined as However, due to the primacy of academic “the measures of disaster prevention, disaster response, achievement in Taiwanese education system, the
and post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation.” knowledge and skills of disaster prevention on campus
Therefore, the concept of disaster prevention is are only emphasized at school during the disaster
expanded to encompass disaster prevention and prevention drills mandated by the local school boards
disaster rescues. Furthermore, the concept of disaster and seem to be lacking among public school students
management is also incorporated into the concept of [5]. But, as suggested by Jyh-Shi Tan [6], disaster
disaster prevention. Disaster management denotes the prevention should be taught at school since it is a
management procedures and methods of disaster responsibility not only for the government but also for
mitigation, disaster preparedness, disaster response, everyone. Given the pivotal role the public school
and disaster recovery for natural and human-made teachers in student education, the adequate disaster
disasters. More elaboration on the components of prevention literacy on their part will be essential for
disaster management [9] is presented in the the disaster prevention education at school [7].
subsequent sections.
Accordingly, this study purposed to examine the
2.2 Disaster Mitigation
disaster prevention literacy among school teachers in Taiwan as a follow-up evaluation of the 2013 disaster
Disaster mitigation is primarily regarding the prevention education program sponsored by the
prevention of disaster occurrence or the reduction of Taiwanese government. Specifically, the following
disaster adverse impact via policies and various coping research questions were empirically investigated:
measures. There are structural disaster mitigation, (1) How is the disaster prevention literacy among
non-structural disaster mitigation, and infrastructural the administrators and teachers from selected schools
disaster mitigation. Structural disaster mitigation is to in Taiwan?
reduce disaster risks by reinforcing buildings and (2) How will each dimension of disaster prevention
constructed facilities. Non-structural disaster mitigation literacy (i.e., knowledge, attitude, & skills) differ
is to reduce disaster risks by policies and administrative across the background characteristics (i.e., school
measures such as using the tax break to encourage the level, job title, gender, age, highest education, years of
community development in a low-risk area or issuing service, school location, disaster experiences, and
the communal insurance policy to buffer the property disaster-stricken status of the school) of the loss. Infrastructural disaster mitigation is to reinforce administrators and teachers from selected schools in
the critical infrastructure, such as the water supply Taiwan?
system or power plants, to reduce the casualties (3) How will each dimension of disaster prevention
caused by damaged infrastructure. literacy (i.e., knowledge, attitude, & skills) differ
2.3 Disaster Preparedness
across the administrators and teachers participating in the disaster prevention education program and the
Disaster preparedness is the preparation for teachers not participating in the disaster prevention
potential disasters and includes the analysis of disaster education program from selected schools in Taiwan?
risks, the establishment of early warning systems, the training of emergency rescues professionals, and the
2. Literature Review
training of local residents.
2.1 Disaster Prevention
2.4 Disaster Response
According to the Disaster Prevention and Protection Disaster response is regarding the coping measures
Disaster Prevention Literacyamong School Administrators and Teachers: A study on the Plan for Disaster Prevention and Campus Network Deployment and Experiment in Taiwan
in the event of disasters, including the mobilization of the rescue manpower, the initiation of the emergency medical services, the evacuation and placement of the disaster-affected people, and the installation of expedient infrastructure according to the contingency plan.
2.5 Disaster Recovery Disaster recovery is the restoration of infrastructure,
facilities, livelihoods, and living conditions in disaster-affected communities. It will include the repairs for the immediate subsistence needs, the restoration of local facilities and industries, and the rehabilitation of the damaged buildings.
2.6 Disaster Prevention Education Program The on-campus disaster prevention education
program is designed to enhance the knowledge, attitude, and skills in the prevention of natural, human-made and complex disasters so that the participants at school can promptly respond to the disasters to save their lives. Disaster prevention education promotes the use of proactive measures to cope with disasters. Therefore, the intent of disaster prevention education is to cultivate not only the understanding of disaster prevention but also the capabilities to take the precautionary measures for disaster prevention on the part of trainees [10]. Here, the fundamental idea underlying disaster prevention is not to control the occurrence of disasters but to mitigate or reduce the disaster-induced damages to humans [10]. Specifically, there are four stages in the implementation of the disaster prevention education program [4]:
(1) Mobilize faculty and students to learn of the local environments and the issues related to campus safety, disaster prevention, and disaster response.
(2) Discuss the issues and strategies related to disaster prevention and formulate the preliminary plan of disaster prevention. Then, on the one hand, implement the measures of disaster mitigation to
reduce the chance of disaster occurrence, and, on the other hand, emphasize the emergency preparation and response strategies.
(3) Prepare and drill for emergency response strategies.
(4) Form the consensus promptly regarding the campus rehabilitation plan to rebuild the campus and restore the damaged buildings and facilities to the normal or close to normal function.
2.7 Disaster-proof Campuses Campaign in Taiwan The Agency of Information and Technology
Education, Ministry of Education in Taiwan was implementing the Plan for Deployment and Experiment of Campus Disaster Prevention Network from 2011 to 2014 to establish disaster-proof campuses in different regions. With hazard awareness, risk communication, disaster adaptation, and self-help capability as the core concepts, school teachers and students were cultivated to possess disaster prevention literacy and safety awareness. Accordingly, school disaster prevention and campus safety could be enhanced. Furthermore, the target schools served as the regional promotion bases of campus disaster prevention and community disaster prevention to establish the campus disaster prevention network and arouse the awareness of the importance of disaster prevention, disaster preparedness, and emergency response among general population.
Part of the Plan for Disaster Prevention and Campus Network Deployment and Experiment was to subsidize high schools, middle schools, and elementary schools to establish disaster-proof campuses. The schools were divided into three groups:
(1) Category-1 schools (i.e., partner schools) to establish disaster-proof campuses: set up the campus disaster prevention task force teams, assess the trend of local disasters, compile the disaster prevention campus map, establish the campus disaster prevention and rescues plan, conduct the disaster evacuation drills, and design localized disaster prevention curricula.
Disaster Prevention Literacyamong School Administrators and Teachers: A study on the Plan for Disaster Prevention and Campus Network Deployment and Experiment in Taiwan
(2) Category-2 schools (i.e., leader schools) as the including cognition, skills, and emotion, which will bases to promote disaster-proof campuses: train
enable an individual to respond, analyze, and reflect in disaster prevention professionals, set up the the face of disasters for the well-being of his or her mechanism of resource sharing and division of life [13]. In general, disaster prevention literacy is labor for disaster prevention, and facilitate the
composed of correct understanding of life-threatening establishment of disaster-proof campuses in the
disasters, proactive attitude to disaster information and category-1 schools.
disaster prevention, and adequate capabilities and (3) Category-3 schools (i.e., innovator schools) to
skills for disaster prevention [7]. Specifically, disaster localize and innovate the disaster prevention education:
prevention literacy consists of three dimensions of (1) role-play the community-wide disaster prevention
disaster prevention knowledge, (2) disaster prevention drills, establish the disaster prevention bases for the
attitude, and (3) disaster prevention skills. local community, and innovate the disaster prevention
Furthermore, there are eight categories subsumed education.
under these three dimensions:
In total, 155 schools were subsidized by the (1) Disaster prevention knowledge: disaster Ministry of Education, Taiwan to exemplify the
knowledge, preparedness knowledge, and response establishment of disaster-proof campuses. Among
knowledge.
those schools, 62 were selected by the expert review (2) Disaster prevention attitude: prevention panel as the schools with outstanding performance in
awareness, prevention values, and prevention sense of establishing disaster-proof campuses.
responsibility.
(3) Disaster prevention skills: preparedness action
2.8 Conceptual Framework of Disaster Prevention
and response behaviors.
Literacy The descriptors of eight categories are listed in
Disaster prevention literacy is the vital component
Table 1.
of disaster prevention education. In order to equip the
2.9 School Teacher Disaster Prevention Education school teachers with the essential understanding of
disaster prevention, their disaster prevention literacy Elementary school education lays the foundation for needs to be cultivated first [11].
all future school education. Therefore, the elementary Literacy can be operationally defined as “the ability
school teachers’ attitude toward the importance of to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate
disaster prevention education will have a bearing on and compute, using printed and written materials
the success of disaster prevention education [14]. If associated with varying context” [12]. And it involves
school teachers can pass on the correct attitude and
a continuum of learning which will enable individuals understanding of disaster prevention to their pupils, to achieve their goals, develop their knowledge and
the behaviors of the pupils can be changed. As potentials, and fully participate in the community and
suggested by Kuo-Cheng Chen [15], education can wider society [12]. As to disaster prevention literacy, it
cultivate correct understanding of, proactive attitude can be conceptualize as the development of the
toward, and positive value of the environments. proactive attitude to apply disaster prevention
According to the past research [14, 16, 17],
knowledge to cope with the disasters and the elementary school teachers in Taiwan possessed a capabilities to rehabilitate and improve life after the
medium to high level of knowledge and skills in disasters. Disaster prevention literacy is also defined
disaster prevention and an positively leaning attitude as the composite of multiple capabilities and skills,
toward disaster prevention. However, female teachers
Disaster Prevention Literacyamong School Administrators and Teachers: A study on the Plan for
Disaster Prevention and Campus Network Deployment and Experiment in Taiwan
Table 1 Dimensions, categories, and descriptors of disaster prevention literacy.
Dimension Category
Descriptor
Knowledge Disaster knowledge
Synthesize and analyze the definitions and causes of various disasters Explain the impacts and harms of disasters to humans and their environment
Preparedness knowledge
Develop the disaster mitigation procedures Make the action plan of disaster mitigation and preparedness
Response knowledge
Decide the response procedures in the event of a disaster Design the measures of post-disaster rescues and medical cares
Attitude Prevention awareness
Evaluate the environment comprehensively and recognize the potential hazards Synthesize and analyze the disaster-related information proactively
Prevention values Promote the importance of disaster prevention, disaster relief, and evacuation plan Explain the relation between disaster prevention and social cost
Prevention sense of responsibility Organize the promotion of campus and community disaster prevention Plan the execution of campus evacuation and shelter placement
Skills Preparedness action
Plan the escape routes and sites in the event of a disaster Plan and participate in the drills and training for disaster prevention and relief
Response behaviors Ensure self-safety and help others to escape in the event of a disaster Cooperate during the evacuation and shelter placement
seemed to have a more positive attitude toward Overall, past research focused on school teachers’ disaster prevention [6]. The results in another study
disaster prevention literacy and how their disaster [14] suggested that 99.60% of the elementary school
prevention literacy differed across background teachers in southern Taiwan recognized the variables. In the current study, the participation in the importance of disaster prevention education but only
disaster prevention education program was also included 61.00% of them perceived themselves as being
to assess if disaster prevention literacy changed across capable of conducting disaster prevention education.
the participants in the disaster prevention education Chen-Ming Lee [16] found that, among elementary
program and the non-participatants. school teachers, disaster prevention knowledge
3. Methods
differed across gender and school positions and disaster prevention attitude varied across gender, ages,
3.1 Participants
and years of teaching. However, the conflicting The study participants were school administrators findings were found in more recent studies for school
and teachers from 62 schools with outstanding positions [11], for ages [17, 18], and for years of
performance in establishing disaster-proof campuses teaching [18].
and teachers from randomly selected control schools
Disaster Prevention Literacyamong School Administrators and Teachers: A study on the Plan for Disaster Prevention and Campus Network Deployment and Experiment in Taiwan
of the similar student body sizes in the same regions.
Table 2 Participant demographics (N = 247).
They participated in the study by responding to the Variable n % online survey of disaster prevention literacy between
School level Elementary school
January 2015 and March 2015. In total, 320 school 77.73
Middle school
administrators and teachers were invited to participate
Job Title
and 247 (77.19%) of them completed the online Principal 4 1.62
survey. Director 51 20.65 Most of the participants were working in the
Section leader
elementary schools (n = 192, 77.73%), home classroom
Home classroom teacher
Subject teacher
teachers (n = 118, 47.77%), female (n = 160, 64.78%), Staff 8 3.24
aged between 40 and 50 years old (n = 113, 45.75%),
Age
with at least a bachelor degree (bachelor: n = 117, 20-29 34 13.77 47.37%; graduate: n = 123, 49.80%). Furthermore, the
30-39 75 30.36 40-49 113 majority of them were not working in schools located 45.75
50 or more
in remote areas, not working in disaster-stricken-schools,
Highest education
and not personally experiencing disasters. As to the Associate 7 2.83 participation of the disaster prevention education
Bachelor 117 47.37 program, slightly more than half of them (n = 146,
Graduate 123 49.80 59.11%) actually participated in the program. More
Years of service <5
43 details are listed in Table 2. 17.41 5-14.9 83 33.60
3.2 Instrument 15-24.9 84 34.01
25 and more
The online survey consisted of two parts: (1)
School location
disaster prevention literacy and (2) background
Remote areas
information. 67.61 In the first part of the survey, there were 29 items Personal experiences of disasters Yes 102 41.30
Not remote areas
measuring disaster prevention literacy based on the No 145 58.70
theoretical framework by Sin-Cheng Ye [19] with 8
Working in a disaster-stricken school
categories subsumed under 3 dimensions of disaster Yes 37 14.98 prevention literacy (Table 1). All survey items were on
No 210 85.02
a 5-point Likert scale (1: strongly disagree; 2 disagree; Participation in disaster prevention education program Yes 146 59.11
3: neutral; 4: agree; 5: strongly agree). Among those No 101 40.89
29 items, 11 were adopted from other studies [2, 7, 11,
14, 17, 18, 20] and the remaining 18 were developed in the pilot study suggested a good internal according to the aforementioned theoretical framework.
consistency of the survey items [21]. The actual All items were reviewed by an expert panel and some
survey is listed in Table 3.
items were revised as suggested by the content experts In the second part of the survey, the respondents to enhance the content validity of the survey items.
were asked to answer the questions regarding (1) school Then the survey items were administered to 10 school
level, (2) job title, (3) gender, (4) age, (5) highest teachers in a pilot study to assess the item clarity. The
education, (6) years of service, (7) school location, (8) Crobach’s alpha coefficients as 0.81 from the results
personal experiences of disasters, (9) currently working
Disaster Prevention Literacyamong School Administrators and Teachers: A study on the Plan for
Disaster Prevention and Campus Network Deployment and Experiment in Taiwan
Table 3 Survey items for different categories of disaster prevention literacy among middle school and elementary school teachers.
Dimension Category Survey Item Knowledge Disaster knowledge
#20 Earthquakes can be predicted by scientific instruments and techniques #21 Earthquakes may lead to earth shattering, tsunami, flood, and soil liquefaction #22 I can thoroughly explain the reasons why Shao-Lin village was wiped out during a typhoon
Preparedness knowledge #9 I can use the comparison between disaster preparedness in different schools to inform students that disaster preparedness and evacuation planning can alleviate the damages of disasters
#11 I can compile the disaster prevention materials to be used as the after-school supplements for students. #17 I will sometimes skip some disaster prevention procedures due to the repetition of them every year #19 I perceive the first-aid kit as being necessary to prevent the disaster occurrence
Response knowledge #7 I can facilitate students to cooperate with the campus disaster response measures and make them understand how to conduct, assist, and wait for the rescues work #26 I will help to check the house damages after the disasters.
#27 I will donate items which people in the disaster-stricken areas need. Attitude
Prevention awareness #1 I will inform the building manager once I see the personal belongings in the stairwell or the safety exit #3 I will pay attention to the irregularities in the surroundings for the sake of safety of myself and the students #4 I will regularly check the safety of the living environment to reduce the disaster-induced damages #12 I will explain to the students the causes of casualties upon hearing the disaster news #13 I will remind the students to prepare for the typhoon at home prior to the issues of typhoon warning
Prevention values #5 We cannot predict the time and location of disaster occurrence so that we don’t need to waste time on disaster preparation
#6 I will agree that the government should first spend money on the preparation for disaster rehabilitation instead of disaster prevention education
#15 I will encourage students to discuss together for problem clarification in disaster prevention education #24 I will approve the release the information of disaster-prone areas by the government even though it may lead to the fall of housing prices
Prevention sense of responsibility
#8 There are disaster shelters at school to place disaster-affected people #16 I will assist the planning and organization of community residents to participate in the promotional
events of disaster prevention at school #28 I am not very clear of the disaster prevention and rescues plan in my own school
Skills Preparedness action
#2 I should identify the location of the emergency exit and equipment upon entering a public building #10 I will help students understand the campus safety map and plan the proper escape routes and
placement sites for different classrooms #14 I will participate in the planning of regular disaster prevention drill at school to help students
understand the escape routes and escape procedures #18 I feel bored while the school is mandated to hold the disaster prevention drills repeatedly
Response behaviors #23 While the disaster prevention drill is held in my community, I will cooperate during the evacuation
#25 Upon the disaster occurrence, I will protect myself and guide the students to behave to avoid the disaster damages #29 While the neighboring community is struck by the disaster, I think I can assist the rescues work for disaster-affected people
Note: Survey items #5, #6, #17, #18, and #28 are reversely worded items.
Disaster Prevention Literacyamong School Administrators and Teachers: A study on the Plan for Disaster Prevention and Campus Network Deployment and Experiment in Taiwan
in a disaster-stricken school, and (10) if participate in literacy, one at a time, changed across the levels of the the Plan for Disaster Prevention and Campus Network
independent variable. The F test of the variance Deployment and Experiment or not.
related to the independent variable would help to decide if there was a relationship between the
3.3 Operationalization of Independent Variable participation in the disaster prevention education
The independent variables in the research question program and disaster prevention literacy. The alpha
2 were those background variables (i.e., school level, level was set at 0.05 for all the F tests in this study. job title, gender, age, highest education, years of
The was computed as an effect size index to estimate service, school location, disaster experiences, and
the proportion of the variance in the dependent disaster-stricken status of the school). Then the
variable accounted for by the independent variable independent variable in the research question 3 was
regarding whether a teacher participated in disaster
4. Results
prevention education program entitled the Plan for Disaster Prevention and Campus Network
4.1 Research Question 1
Deployment and Experiment in 2013 or not. Various descriptive statistics of the dependent
3.4 Measurement of Dependent Variables variables are listed in Table 4. Overall, among three dimensions of disaster prevention literacy, participants
In the research question 1, three dimensions and the had the highest mean score on disaster prevention subsumed eight categories of disaster prevention
skills (i.e., 4.50) and the lowest on disaster prevention literacy served as the dependent variable. As to the
knowledge (i.e., 4.20). Therefore, participants were research questions 2 & 3, three dimensions of disaster
strongest on disaster prevention skills but weakest on prevention literacy are the dependent variables. Those
disaster prevention knowledge.
dependent variables were measured by various As to the specific categories under the knowledge numbers of survey items (Table 2) on a 5-point Likert
dimension of disaster prevention literacy, participants scale (1: strongly disagree; 2 disagree; 3: neutral; 4:
scored the highest, on average, on response agree; 5: strongly agree). The average scores from the
knowledge (i.e., 4.39) and the lowest on disaster related survey items would indicate the levels of
knowledge (i.e., 3.94). For the attitude dimension of disaster prevention literacy in 3 dimensions and 8
disaster prevention literacy, participants had the specific categories.
highest mean score on disaster awareness category
3.5 Data Analysis (i.e., 4.47) and the lowest on disaster sense of responsibility category (i.e., 4.10). Under the skills
All data analyses were conducted with IBM SPSS dimension of disaster prevention literacy, participants Statistics 22.
scored higher on response behaviors (i.e., 4.48)
3.5.1 Research Question 1: Descriptive Statistics relative to preparation action (i.e., 3.61). The means and standard deviations were computed
4.2 Research Question 2
for each dimension and category of disaster prevention literacy to address the research question 1.
With the research question 2, we empirically
3.5.2 Research Questions 2 and 3: One-way examined if each dimension of disaster prevention analysis of variance (ANOVA)
literacy (i.e., knowledge, attitude, & skills) The one-way ANOVA [21, 22] was conducted to
differed by various background characteristics of assess if various dimensions of disaster prevention
participants.
Disaster Prevention Literacyamong School Administrators and Teachers: A study on the Plan for
Disaster Prevention and Campus Network Deployment and Experiment in Taiwan
Table 4 Descriptive statistics of dimensions and categories of disaster prevention literacy among middle school and elementary school teachers (N = 247).
Variable M Mdn SD Min. Max. Knowledge
4.20 4.30 0.45 3.00 5.00 Disaster knowledge
3.94 4.00 0.62 1.33 5.00 Preparedness knowledge
4.24 4.25 0.55 2.75 5.00 Response knowledge
4.39 4.33 0.56 2.67 5.00 Attitude
4.34 4.42 0.44 3.00 5.00 Prevention awareness
4.47 4.50 0.51 2.75 5.00 Prevention values
4.38 4.50 0.55 2.75 5.00 Prevention sense of responsibility
4.10 4.33 0.69 2.00 5.00 Skills
4.50 4.57 0.48 3.00 5.00 Preparedness action
3.61 3.80 0.40 2.40 4.00 Response behaviors
4.48 4.67 0.56 2.33 5.00 Note: M: Mean; Mdn: Mode; SD: Standard deviation; Min.: Lowest result; Max.: Highest result.
4.2.1 School Level as the Independent Variable disaster prevention literacy, they were similar in both The results suggested that disaster prevention
gender groups.
knowledge, F (1, 245) = 11.32, P < 0.05, 2 η = 0.04,
4.2.4 Age as the Independent Variable disaster prevention attitude, F (1, 245) = 9.59, P <
Three dimensions of disaster prevention literacy,
0.05, 2 η = 0.04, and disaster prevention skills, F (1, disaster prevention knowledge, F (3, 243) = 11.89, P <
2 245) = 18.34, P < 0.05, 2 η = 0.04, changed across 0.05, η = 0.13, disaster prevention attitude, F (3, 243) school levels (elementary school vs. middle school) of 2 = 11.76, P < 0.05, η = 0.13, and disaster prevention the participants. Furthermore, the elementary school 2 skills, F (3, 243) = 12.14, P < 0.05, η = 0.13, changed
participants were higher than their middle school across age groups. Specifically, older participants counterparts on disaster prevention knowledge (4.25
seemed to be higher in disaster prevention literacy. vs. 4.02), disaster prevention attitude (4.38 vs. 4.18),
The mean scores of disaster prevention knowledge and disaster prevention skills (4.56 vs. 4.26).
were 3.94, 4.06, 4.33, and 4.35 for participants being
4.2.2 Job Title as the Independent Variable (1) 20-29 years old, (2) 30-39 years old, (3) 40-49 The results did not support the differences in
years old, and (4) 50 years old or older respectively. disaster prevention knowledge, F (5, 241) = 1.56, P >
As to disaster prevention attitude, the mean scores
0.05, 2 η = 0.03, disaster prevention attitude, F (5, 241) were 4.03, 4.24, 4.46, and 4.46 for different age = 1.61, P > 0.05, 2 η = 0.03, and disaster prevention
groups in ascending order. Last, the mean scores of skills, F (5, 241) = 1.29, P > 0.05, 2 η = 0.03, across
disaster prevention skills were 4.19, 4.37, 4.62, and the participants with various job titles.
4.71 for different age groups in ascending order.
4.2.5 Highest Education as the Independent Variable The differences between female participants and the
4.2.3 Gender as the Independent Variable
According to the results, disaster prevention male participants in disaster prevention knowledge, F
knowledge, F (2, 244) = 1.51, P > 0.05, = 0.01, (1, 245) = 1.56, P > 0.05, 2 η = 0.03, disaster
disaster prevention attitude, F (2, 244) = 2.10, P >
2 prevention attitude, F (1, 245) = 1.61, P > 0.05, 2 η = 0.05, η = 0.02, and disaster prevention skills, F (2,
0.03, and disaster prevention skills, F (1, 245) = 1.29, 2 244) = 0.34, P > 0.05, η = 0.003, disaster prevention P > 0.05, 2 η = 0.03, were not shown in the results. In
literacy was not related to highest education of the terms of actual mean scores on three dimensions of
participants.
Disaster Prevention Literacyamong School Administrators and Teachers: A study on the Plan for
Disaster Prevention and Campus Network Deployment and Experiment in Taiwan
4.2.6 Years of Service as the Independent Variable counterparts with no personal experiences of disasters, Three dimensions of disaster prevention literacy
thought the actual differences were not sizable. The changed across participants of different years of
mean scores of disaster prevention knowledge were service, disaster prevention knowledge, F (3, 243) =
4.29 and 4.13 for the participants with and without
7.18, P < 0.05, 2 η = 0.08, disaster prevention attitude, personal experiences of disaster. As to disaster
F (3, 243) = 10.05, P < 0.05, 2 η = 0.11, and disaster prevention attitude, the mean scores were 4.40 and prevention skills, F (3, 243) = 11.05, P < 0.05, 2 η =
4.29 for those two groups of participants respectively.
0.12. Furthermore, the longer the participants worked Then the mean scores of disaster prevention skills as school administrators or school teachers, the higher
were 4.58 and 4.43 for those two groups of their disaster prevention literacy would be. The mean
participants respectively.
scores of disaster prevention knowledge were 3.99,
4.2.9 Disaster-stricken Schools as the Independent
4.16, 4.23, and 4.43 for participants with the years of
Variable
service being (1) less than 5 years, (2) 5-14.9 years, (3) The results supported the differences in disaster 15-24.9 years, and (4) 50 years or more respectively.
prevention knowledge, F (1, 245) = 12.86, P < 0.05, As to disaster prevention attitude, the mean scores 2 η = 0.05, disaster prevention attitude, F (1, 245) =
were 4.06, 4.33, 4.39, and 4.55 for groups of different 2 6.56, P < 0.05, η = 0.03, and disaster prevention skills, years of service in ascending order. Last, the mean 2 F (1, 245) = 14.30, P < 0.05, η = 0.06, across the
scores of disaster prevention skills were 4.20, 4.46, participants in disaster-stricken schools and the
4.57, and 4.76 for groups of different years of service participants not in disaster-stricken schools. Overall, in ascending order.
the participants in disaster-stricken schools had higher
4.2.7 School Location as the Independent Variable disaster prevention literacy relative to their The results suggested that disaster prevention
counterparts not in disaster-stricken schools. The literacy remained the same across participants from
mean scores were 4.43 and 4.15 on disaster prevention schools in remote areas and participants from schools
knowledge, 4.50 and 4.31 on disaster prevention not in remote areas, disaster prevention knowledge, F
attitude, and 4.76 and 4.45 on disaster prevention (1, 245) = 0.30, P > 0.05, 2 η = 0.001, disaster
skills for those two groups of participants respectively. prevention attitude, F (1, 245) = 0.33, P > 0.05, 2 η =
4.3 Research Question 3
0.003, and disaster prevention skills, F (1, 245) = 0.71, P > 0.05, 2 η = 0.003.
The research question 3 purposed to investigate if
4.2.8 Personal Experiences of Disasters as the each dimension of disaster prevention literacy (i.e., Independent Variable
knowledge, attitude, & skills) differed by participation Disaster prevention literacy was found to differ
in the disaster prevention education program. across the participants with personal experience of
Participation in the disaster prevention education disasters and the participants with no personal
program as the independent variable. Three experiences of disasters, disaster prevention dimensions of disaster prevention literacy, disaster
knowledge, F (1, 245) = 7.25, P < 0.05, 2 η = 0.03, prevention knowledge, F (1, 245) = 9.77, P < 0.05, disaster prevention attitude, F (1, 245) = 4.27, P < 2 η = 0.04, disaster prevention attitude, F (1, 245) =
0.05, 2 η = 0.02, and disaster prevention skills, F (1, 12.36, P < 0.05, η = 0.05, and disaster prevention
245) = 5.96, P < 0.05, 2 η = 0.02. In specific, the skills, F (1, 245) = 6.15, P < 0.05, η = 0.02, differed participants with personal experiences of disasters had
across the disaster prevention education program higher disaster prevention literacy relative to their
participants and their counterparts not participating in
Disaster Prevention Literacyamong School Administrators and Teachers: A study on the Plan for
Disaster Prevention and Campus Network Deployment and Experiment in Taiwan
the disaster prevention education program. inconsistent with previous research [16]. On the other Specifically, the disaster prevention education hand, three dimensions of disaster prevention literacy program participants had higher disaster prevention
were found to differ across the participants of various literacy relative to the non-participants. The mean
school levels, age, years of service, personal scores of disaster prevention knowledge were 4.27 and
experiences of disasters, and disaster-stricken school
4.09 for the program participants and the status. non-participants respectively. As to disaster prevention
Specifically, elementary school administrators and attitude, the mean scores were 4.41 and 4.22 for the
teachers were higher than their middle school program participants and non-participants. Last, the
counterparts in disaster prevention literacy. It may be mean scores of disaster prevention skills were 4.56
worthwhile to investigate the reasons, such as the and 4.41 for the program participants and stronger emphasis on student academic achievement non-participants.
in the middle schools, why middle school
5. Discussions and Recommendations administrators and teachers are lagging on disaster
prevention literacy in future research. Thereby, the
5.1 Overall Disaster Prevention Literacy disaster prevention education program can be tailored Among the results of three dimensions of disaster
to accommodate for participants at different school prevention literacy, disaster prevention skills were the
levels.
highest and disaster prevention knowledge was the The older participants with longer years of service lowest for participating school teachers and at school, working at disaster-stricken schools, and administrators as a whole. While inspecting the results
with personal experiences of disasters were found to of the specific categories under knowledge dimension
have higher disaster prevention literacy relative to the of disaster prevention literacy, participants were weak
younger participants with shorter years of service at on disaster knowledge relative to preparedness school, not working at disaster-stricken schools, and knowledge and response knowledge. Therefore, the
with no personal experiences of disasters. The dissemination of the knowledge of various disasters
relationships among those four background variables seems to be the area to be stressed in future disaster
in the follow-up analysis seem to explain to some prevention education programs.
extent why the participants with certain characteristics Although the participants were strong on disaster
tend to have better disaster prevention literacy. For prevention skills, they seemed to be lacking in the
instance, the older teachers were more likely to have skills of preparation action relative to other specific
longer years of service, personally encounter the categories of disaster prevention literacy. Accordingly,
disasters, work at the disaster-stricken schools, and get more attention should be paid to the category of
more sensitive of disaster prevention. But the above preparation action in the design and implementation of
finding does highlight the need to offer more future disaster prevention education programs.
opportunities of disaster prevention education to junior teachers at school not only due to their deficit
5.2 Disaster Prevention Literacy by Background in disaster prevention literacy but also due to their
Characteristics potentially longer service years to come. Moreover,
All three dimensions of disaster prevention literacy the senior teachers at school can also be incorporated remained similar across the participants of different
into the future disaster prevention education program job titles, gender, levels of highest education, and
as the facilitators or even instructors to tap into their school locations. The finding related to gender is
valuable experiences.
Disaster Prevention Literacyamong School Administrators and Teachers: A study on the Plan for Disaster Prevention and Campus Network Deployment and Experiment in Taiwan
5.3 Disaster Prevention Literacy and Disaster Prevention Literacy for Junior High and Elementary School Students in Taiwan.
Prevention Education Program [10] Hsiu-Mei, L. 2001. A Study of Seismic Hazard Mitigation
The disaster prevention education program Teaching in Junior High Schools. Master Program of Geography, National Taiwan University, Master’s thesis.
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Literacy and Teacher Training Curriculum for counterparts. This is an encouraging, though not
Compulsory School Teachers: A Case Study of Nantou conclusive, finding regarding the effectiveness of the County. [12] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
disaster prevention education program. More research Organization (UNESCO) 2005. Aspect of literacy needs to be conducted to establish the effectiveness of
assessment: Topics and issues from the UNESCO expert the disaster prevention education program with more
meeting, Paris, France. Retrieved from http://unesdoc. rigid research designs, like experimental designs, or unesco.org/images/0014/001401/140125eo.pdf. [13] Chiang, W. J. 2008. Man Made Disaster Prevention
statistical procedures to ensure the equivalence of the Literacy Research of the Fifth Grade Students in Taiwan. treatments group and the control group, like the
[14] Li-Chuan, L. 2005. A Study of Teacher’s Belief and propensity score analysis [23].
Teaching Behavior in Natural Disaster Prevention for Teachers of Southern Area Elementary Schools.
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Journal of Life Sciences 10 (2016) 215-220
doi: 10.17265/1934-7391/2016.04.007
DAVID PUBLISHING