Journal of Life Sciences Volume 10 Numbe (2)
JLS
Journal of Life Sciences
Volume 10, Number 4, April 2016 (Serial Number 95)
Contents
Zoology
171
Reproductive Biology of the Striped Seabream Lithognathus mormyrus (Linnaeus, 1758) from Al Haneah Fishing Site, Mediterranean Sea, Eastern Libya
Eyman Faraj Abd Alssalam, Sayed Mohamed Ali, Mohammad El Sayed El Sayed El Mor, Ramadan Attea Saleh Ali and Eman Salem Al Fergan
182
Tetanus in Cat: From Neglected Wound to Neuromuscular Disorder—Case Report
Maksimovi ć Alan, Filipović Selma, Lutvikadić Ismar and Šunje-Rizvan Amila
Botany
185
Management of Insect Vectors of Viruses in Tomato Plants Using Different Densities of Yellow Traps
Eduardo Domingos Grecco, Dirceu Pratissoli, Hugo Bolsoni Zago, Débora Ferreira Melo Fragoso and José Romário Carvalho
192
Therapeutic Effect of Zygophyllum cornutum on Metabolic Disturbances, Oxidative Stress in Heart Tissue and Histological Changes in Myocardium of Streptozotocin-induced Diabetic Rats
Awatif Boumaza, Samira Ferdi, Houda Sbayou, Fatima Khelifi Touhami, Mohamed Habib Belmahi and Cherifa Benlatreche
Interdisciplinary Researches
198
A Selection Study for Sanitary Landfill Site at Basra City, South of Iraq
Wathiq A. Al-Ramdhan, Mahmood S. Thamir, Assaad F. Hamza, Abdulwahab A. Sultan, Ali G. Katea’a, Najem Al-Dean A. Al-hajaj, Ayad K. Jirri and Ekhlass B. Zubery
203
Disaster Prevention Literacy among School Administrators and Teachers: A Study on the Plan for Disaster Prevention and Campus Network Deployment and Experiment in Taiwan
Sung-Chin Chung and Cherng-Jyh Yen 215
Behavior of a Nonlinear Difference Equation
Mehmet Emre Erdogan and Kemal Uslu
Journal of Life Sciences 10 (2016) 171-181
doi: 10.17265/1934-7391/2016.04.001
DAVID PUBLISHING
Reproductive Biology of the Striped Seabream Lithognathus mormyrus (Linnaeus, 1758) from Al-Haneah Fishing Site, Mediterranean Sea, Eastern Libya
Eyman Faraj Abd Alssalam 1 , Sayed Mohamed Ali 1 , Mohammad El Sayed El Sayed El Mor , Ramadan Attea 1, 2
1 Saleh Ali 1 and Eman Salem Al Fergani 1. Department of Zoology, Omar Al-Mukhtar University, Al Beida, Libya
2. Department of Science, Suez Canal University, Egypt
Abstract: Reproductive biology of L. mormyrus was studied using monthly samples totaling 224 fish obtained from Al-Haneah fishing site, eastern Libya Mediterranean Sea. Lengths of the examined fish ranged between 11.5 cm and 23.4 cm. Corresponding
weights were 24.5 g and 160.8 g. The minimum values of the condition factors, K F and K C , were 1.38 and 1.21 at the average fish length of 12.4 cm. These values increased with increases in length until they reached maximum values of 1.59 and 1.41 at the length of 22.1 cm. The high values of K F and K C , Gonado-Somatic Index and oocyte diameter maintained during May, June, July, and August and the monthly changes in gonadal condition, indicated that summer was the breeding season of L. mormyrus. The oocyte diameter ranged between 379 ± 25.3 µ and 1,511 ± 143.3 µ (n = 76) with an average of 895 ± 111.3 µ. The sex ratio was in favor of
females during all months of the study. The overall sex ratio was 1: 1.52. Length at first maturity, L 50 , for L. mormyrus was found to
be 14.15 cm for males and 14.45 for females. Overall average of absolute fecundity was 4,342 ± 557 egg per fish (n = 45). The overall average of relative fecundity was 234 ± 181 egg per cm. Absolute fecundity increased with increasing fish length.
Key words: Reproductive biology, length at first maturity, oocyte diameter, fecundity, striped Seabream, Lithognathus mormyrus.
1. Introduction Least concern.
The objective of the present work was to study Lithognathus mormyrus [1], striped Seabream or reproductive biology of L. mormyrus obtained from sand steenbras, family Sparidae, is a marine the artisanal catch of Al-Haneah, eastern Libya gregarious demersal fish inhabiting sandy shallow Mediterranean Sea. The data obtained will be helpful coastal waters. It is commonly not more than 30 cm in managing the fisheries of this fish in Libya. long [2, 3]. It feeds on worms, mollusks, small
crustaceans and detritus. It is protandrous
2. Methods
hermaphrodite and breeds in summer (Russell et al.,
2.1 AL-Haneah Fish Landing Site 2014). The fish is subtropical, widely distributed in
the eastern Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean sea, the Al-Haneah and vicinity (Fig. 1) is a principal Red sea and the southwestern Indian Ocean. In Libya
fishing ground on eastern Libyan Mediterranean Sea. it is present along the whole coast and is common in the
L. mormyrus is common in its artisanal catch. artisanal catch [4]. The IUCN status of this fish is:
2.2 The Reproductive Biology Studies
Corresponding author: Sayed Mohamed Ali, professor, Dr., These were the condition factors, the gonado-somatic research fields: oceanography, fisheries, chemistry, zoology
and environment. index, the maturity stages, the length at first maturity,
Reproductive Biology of the Striped Seabream Lithognathus mormyrus (Linnaeus, 1758)
from Al-Haneah Fishingsite, Mediterranean Sea, Eastern Libya
Fig. 1 Al-Haneah fishing site.
the sex ratio, the breeding season, fecundity and eggs with an eye piece micrometer. Corresponding diameter.
eviscerated fish weights were recorded.
2.2.1 Collection and Treatment of L. mormyrus
2.2.2 The Condition Factor
samples Monthly Fulton’s and Clark’s condition factors An average of 19 L. mormyrus were collected
(“K F ”, “K C ”) for female and male L. mormyrus were monthly from Al-Haneah artisanal catch during March
obtained monthly according to Froese and Bagenal 2015 to February 2016 for use in the biological studies.
and Tesch [6, 7].
F = 100 (W/L )…Fulton’s condition factor. were brought to the Marine Laboratory of the Zoology
Altogether 224 fish were used. The monthly samples 3 K
K C = 100 (EW/L 3 )…Clark’s condition factor. Department of Omar Al-Mukhtar University. For each
W: whole fish weight in grams fish total length and corresponding weight were
EW: eviscerated fish weightin grams measured to the nearest mm and the first decimal of the
L: fish length in centimeters
gram. The abdominal cavity was then cut open with a The factor 100 was used to bring K close to unity. scissor and the condition of the ovary (maturity stages)
2.2.3 Gonado-Somatic Index (GSI) according to El-Ganainy and Buxton [5] was observed
GSI was determined monthly according to Anderson and recorded. The gonads were then taken out and
and Gutreuter and Akter et al. [8, 9]. weighed, ovaries with well-developed eggs were
GSI = 100 wt of gonad (gm)/wt of whole fish (gm) preserved in 10% formalin for later reading the oocyte
GSI: Gonado-somatic index
diameter under the low power of a microscope fitted
wt: weight
Reproductive Biology of the Striped Seabream Lithognathus mormyrus (Linnaeus, 1758)
from Al-Haneah Fishingsite, Mediterranean Sea, Eastern Libya
2.2.4 Maturity Stages
SW: sub sample weight (g)
These were recorded monthly as I: immature, II: NS: total number of eggs in sub sample. developing, III: mature, IV: regressing, V:
Total fecundity was then obtained by averaging the regenerating [5].
numbers of eggs per ovary calculated from each of the
2.2.5 Length at First Maturity (L 50 )
three sub samples.
L 50 , the length at which 50% of individuals were Relative fecundity (RF) is the number of eggs per mature, was obtained by plotting the percentage
unit length (cm) or the number of eggs per unit weight mature fish in each length class of the whole
(g) of fish. To estimate relative fecundity individual
fecundities were divided by corresponding lengths or length corresponding to 50% mature.
population versus length. From the curve, L 50 was the
weights [11].
2.2.6 Sex Ratio
2.2.9 Egg Diameter
Sex ratio was determined by counting the number The egg diameter (µ) was established monthly with of males and females in the monthly samples studied.
aid of a microscope fitted with an eye piece
2.2.7 The Breeding Season micrometer. Each month individual dimeters of 10 The breeding season was established from analysis
non deformed and rounded oocytes taken from of the monthly variation in the condition factor, the
different parts of ovaries of individual females were GSI and the maturity stages.
measured under the low power of the microscope. The
2.2.8 Fecundity average diameter was then calculated. Total or absolute fecundity (TF) is the total number
3. Results
of eggs in the ovaries of a fish prior to spawning [10]. In the present study mature ovaries were removed
3.1 Lengths, Corresponding Weights, and Condition from their fish and placed in 10% formalin for one day Factors
to allow the eggs to harden. Each ovary was then In the present study fish lengths ranged between 11.5 taken out of the formalin, dried with a tissue paper and
cm and 23.4 cm. Corresponding weights were 24.5 gm weighed. Three small sub samples were taken from
and 160.8 gm. All fish lengths were divided into 6 the front, mid and rear parts of the ovary, weighed and
length classes with class range of 1.9 cm as shown in atomized by rubbing gently with fingers.
Table1.
The number of eggs in each sub sample was The minimum values of the condition factors K F counted under the low power of a microscope. The
and K C were 1.38 and 1.21 at the average observed number of eggs in the ovary based on each sub sample
length of 12.4 cm (Table 1 and Fig. 2). These values was calculated as:
increased with increases in length until they reached Number of eggs in the ovary = OW (g)/SW (g)
maximum values of 1.59 and 1.41 at the maximum *NS [7] OW: ovary weight (g)
observed length of 22.1 cm.
Table 1 Fish lengths, weights and condition factors (K F and K C ), per length class range of 224 L. mormyrus from Al-Haneah coast. Number of fish within each class range is given between two brackets.
K C ± S.D. 11.5-13.4 (39)
Length class range cm
Average length cm
Average weight gm
K F ± S.D.
1.21 ± 0.56 13.5-15.4 (37)
1.24 ± 0.76 15.5-17.4 (34)
1.29 ± 0.95 17.5-19.4 (41)
1.32 ± 0.99 19.5-21.4 (40)
1.34 ± 1.01 21.5-23.4 (33)
Reproductive Biology of the Striped Seabream Lithognathus mormyrus (Linnaeus, 1758)
from Al-Haneah Fishingsite, Mediterranean Sea, Eastern Libya
T.L. (cm)
Fig. 2 The relationship between condition factor and length of L. mormyrus from Al-Haneah coast.
months and reached a minimum value of 1.72 during K C during the study period, March 2015 to February
The monthly variations in condition factors K F and
January. From this we can conclude that the breeding 2016 are shown in Fig. 3. During March K F and K C season of female L. mormyrus is May to August i.e.
were 1.22 and 0.94 in order. Then they increased during
summer.
April and recorded the highest values of 1.71 and 1.49
3.3 Sex Ratio
in May. High values were maintained during June, July and August. The monthly values then decreased
During all the study period the ratio of Males: gradually and reached a minimum of 1.27 and 0.98.
Females was in favor of females (Table 2). Of the 224 fish examined during the study period 89 were males
3.2 The Gonado-Somatic Index (39.7%) and 135 were females (60.3%), giving an
Changes in monthly Gonado-Somatic Indices (GSI) overall ratio of 1: 1.52. The highest values were of males of L. mormyrus during the study period are
recorded during the breeding season, in May (69.2%), shown in Fig. 4. Highest GSI were recorded in May
June (64.7%), July (65%) and August (63%). (4.67%), June (5.22%), July (4.76%) and August
3.4 The Oocyte Diameter
(5.81%). A sharp decrease occurred in September (1.41%). Low values were maintained during October
The oocyte diameter in March was 617 ± 33.1 (0.96%) to February (1.09%). The lowest value was
(Table 3). It then increased during April (722 ± 34.5 during January (0.74%). It is, therefore, concluded
µ), May (1,123 ± 77.8 µ), June (1,333 ± 105.6 µ), July that the breeding season of males of this fish is May to
(1,432 ± 129.2 µ) and reached the maximum in August, i.e. summer.
August (1,511 ± 143.3 µ). The oocyte diameter then The GSI for females (Fig. 5) recorded high values
dropped to the lowest value of 379 ± 25.3 µ in during May (6.76%), June (7.61%), July (8.88%) and
October. During the period November, December and August (9.79%). The GSI values then decreased
January the oocytes were either not present or too sharply during September (3.50%) and the following
small to be measured.
Reproductive Biology of the Striped Seabream Lithognathus mormyrus (Linnaeus, 1758)
from Al-Haneah Fishingsite, Mediterranean Sea, Eastern Libya
Dec. January (2016) Feb. KF
Fig. 3 Monthly variations of condition factors of L. mormyrus from Al-Haneah coast.
Males
) 6 (% .I. .S
0 March January (2015)
(2016) Feb. Minim um
1.18 1.33 2.69 2.87 2.99 3.22 1.11 0.84 0.73 0.57 0.49 0.81 Maxim um
Fig. 4 Monthly variations of minimum, maximum and average gonado-somatic indices values of males L. mormyrus from
El-Haneah coast.
(2016) Feb. Minim um
2.13 2.43 3.74 3.98 4.22 4.79 2.11 1.84 1.73 1.57 1.39 1.88 Maxim um
Fig. 5 Monthly variations of minimum, maximum and average gonado-somatic indices of females L. mormyrus from El-Haneah coast.
Reproductive Biology of the Striped Seabream Lithognathus mormyrus (Linnaeus, 1758)
from Al-Haneah Fishingsite, Mediterranean Sea, Eastern Libya
Table 2 Monthly variations in sex ratio of L. mormyrus from Al-Haneah coast.
Males
Females
Months No. of fish Sex ratio
No. % No. %
March (2015) 21 8 38.1 13 61.9 1: 1.63 Apr.
22 10 45.5 12 54.5 1: 1.20 May
13 4 30.8 9 69.2 1: 2.25 Jun. 17 6 35.3 11 64.7 1: 1.83 Jul. 20 7 35.0 13 65.0 1: 1.86
Aug. 27 10 37.0 17 63.0 1: 1.70 Sep. 18 8 44.4 10 55.6 1: 1.25 Oct. 17 6 35.3 11 64.7 1: 1.83
Nov. 21 10 47.6 11 52.4 1: 1.10 Dec. 18 8 44.4 10 55.6 1: 1.25 January (2016)
17 7 41.2 10 58.8 1: 1.43 Feb.
13 5 38.5 8 61.5 1: 1.60 Total 224 89 39.7 135 60.3 1: 1.52
Table 3 Monthly variations of oocyte diameters (µ) of L. mormyrus from El-Hanea coast. Months
Number of fish
Egg Diameter (µ)
Minimum Maximum Average March (2015)
Nov. 11 M M M Dec. 10 M M M January (2016)
Average 895 ± 111.3 M = The eggs were either not present or were too small for their diameters to be measured.
During February the oocyte diameter was (408 ± 31.1
3.6 Length at First Maturity
µ). The average oocyte diameter for all the examined Length at first maturity L 50 is the length at which
45 fish was 895 ± 111.3 µ. half the population is mature and the other half is not.
3.5 Maturity For L. mormyrus L 50 was found to be 14.15 cm for males (Fig. 6) and 14.45 for females (Fig. 7).
11.2% and 8.2% of males and females L. mormyrus in order in the class length 11.5-13.4 cm were mature
3.7 Absolute and Relative Fecundity
(Table 4). Percentage maturity for males and females Overall average of absolute fecundity for the 45 increased in the following class ranges such that all
examined fish was 4,342 ± 557 egg per fish (Table 5). males and females in the class ranges 19.5-21.4 cm
The overall average of relative fecundity was 234 ± and 21.5-23.4 cm in order were mature.
181 egg per cm.
Reproductive Biology of the Striped Seabream Lithognathus mormyrus (Linnaeus, 1758)
from Al-Haneah Fishingsite, Mediterranean Sea, Eastern Libya
Table 4 The percentage of mature and immature fishes at different length ranges of L. mormyrus from Al-Haneah coast.
Total length (cm)
Females Range
Males
% Mature 11.5-13.4 12.4
_ 100 _ 100 Remarks: Data expressed as percentage, (_) No fish in length group occurred.
Table 5 Relationship between fecundity and total body length (cm) of L. mormyrus from El-Hanea coast.
Total length (cm)
Relative Fecundity Range
Absolute Fecundity
TF/TL (cm) 11.5-13.4
Average
No. fish
234 ± 181 TF: Total Fecundity. TL: Total fish length in cm.
Total =
Percentage (%) Males
13.5-15.4 15.5-17.4
Length groups (cm)
Fig. 6 Length at first maturity of males L. mormyrus from Al-Hanea coast.
Reproductive Biology of the Striped Seabream Lithognathus mormyrus (Linnaeus, 1758)
from Al-Haneah Fishingsite, Mediterranean Sea, Eastern Libya
Percentage (%) Females
13.5-15.4 15.5-17.4
Length groups (cm)
Fig. 7 Length at first maturity of females L. mormyrus from Al-Haneah coast.
Absolute fecundity increased with increasing fish and 1.41 at the class range 21.5-23.4 cm. The larger the length from 754 ± 73.8 egg per fish at the average
fish is the larger the condition factor. Mati ć-Skoko [21] total fish length of 12.4 cm to 10,987 ± 214.1 egg per
studied growth of juvenile L. mormyrus from the fish at the average total length of 22.1 cm.
Du ćeGlava, eastern Adriatic Sea. The obtained The same trend was observed for the relative
condition factor of 1.245 is close to the range of fecundity. It ranged from a minimum of 60 egg per
condition factors observed in the present study. centimeter at the average total length of 12.4 cm to
Monthly variation of K F and K C was also determined in 497 egg per centimeter at the average total length of
the present study. K F and K C recorded high values
22.1 cm. during May, June, July and August suggesting that summer is the breeding season of L. mormyrus. Same
4. Discussion
conclusion was also deduced from changes in monthly In the present study lengths of L. mormyrus studied
Gonado-Somatic Indices (GSI) of males and females. ranged between 11.5 cm and 23.4 cm. corresponding to
The highest GSI were recorded in May, June, July and the weights 24.5 gm and 160.8 gm. Previous studies
August. A sharp decrease occurred in September. Low pointed that L. mormyrus can grow to a maximum
values were maintained during October to February. length of about 55 cm, with a weight of around 1 kg,
This was also supported by the observation that gravid but the common size is 20-30 cm [12, 13], it grows
females were encountered during summer. Previous relatively fast during the first few years of life attaining
studies agree that the reproductive season of L. approximately 50% of its maximum length during the
mormyrus is summer [20, 22-25] or spring and summer second year [13-20].
[26-30].
In the present study the condition factors K F and K C During all the study period the ratio of Males: increased with increasing fish length from 1.38 and
Females was in favor to females. The overall ratio was
1.21 in order at the class range 11.5-13.4 cm to 1.59
1: 1.52. Kraljevi ć et al. reported the ratio for the
Reproductive Biology of the Striped Seabream Lithognathus mormyrus (Linnaeus, 1758)
from Al-Haneah Fishingsite, Mediterranean Sea, Eastern Libya
western Istrian coastal waters as 1: 1.62. Ramos and
between 1 and 2 years.
Lorenzo et al. [20, 25], off the Canary islands reported In the present study the overall average absolute
1: 0.85 and EMRE et al. [31], in the Beymelek Lagoon fecundity and relative fecundity were 4,342 ± 557 egg (Antalya, Turkey) reported 1: 1.84. L. mormyrus is
per fish and 234 ± 181 egg per cm in order. Both protandric hermaphrodite [20, 25, 31, 32]. It starts its
absolute fecundity and relative fecundity increased adult life as a male and later changes its sex to female at
with increasing fish length. We did not find any
a length of about 21 to 30 cm (4-9 years) according to previous studies on fecundity of L. mormyrus. Bizsel et al. [13], or 25 cm to 35 cm according to the
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Journal of Life Sciences 10 (2016) 182-184
doi: 10.17265/1934-7391/2016.04.002
DAVID PUBLISHING
Tetanus in Cat: From Neglected Wound to Neuromuscular Disorder—Case Report
Maksimovi ć Alan, Filipović Selma, Lutvikadić Ismar and Šunje-Rizvan Amila Department of Surgery, Veterinary Faculty University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Abstract: Tetanus is caused by the bacterium, Clostridium tetani, and can infect both domestic animals and man. The disease is rarely diagnosed in cats, as a consequence of their increased resistance to the neurotoxin, tetanospasmin. Mortality in animals is generally high (80%). To date these authors have not been able to locate any reports of mortality rates specific to cats. Clinical diagnosis is based on clinical signs and a history of an untreated penetrating wound. This case report describes the development of moderate generalized tetanus in an approximately six month old female stray cat, found with an untreated wound on the side of its neck. This report describes clinical signs, treatment and recovery of the animal.
Key words: Feline, neglected wound, tetanus, therapy.
1. Clinical Presentation bladder and feces- filled intestines. X-ray examination confirmed these findings and an absence of
An approximately six month old, domestic radiographic indicators of spinal trauma or other shorthaired, female cat was presented in lateral pathological conditions was noted (Fig. 1). recumbency with extensor rigidity of the neck,
shoulders and elbows and partial flexion of the carpal
2. Therapy
joints. An old wound, already crusted over, was noted The wound was debrided and irrigated with
on the left side of the neck. Interestingly, rigid hydrogen peroxide (3% concentration) and
extension and caudal displacement was more chlorhexidine (0.5 % concentration) after removal of
pronounced on the right thoracic limb. The owner the crust. Metronidazole (Efloran, Krka, Slovenia) at a
reported the cat had been found five days prior, and dose of 15 mg/kg and vitamin B complex (vitamins B
the cat did not initially display any signs of weakness. complex + C, Norbrook, Northern Ireland) were
The owner treated the wound by daily cleansing with dissolved in saline 0.9% and administered in a slow
iodine. On the sixth day, the cat developed stiffness in intravenous infusion (rate 2 mL/kg/h), once daily. In
its neck, inability to eat and lameness in the left addition, amoxicillin with clavulanic acid (Synulox,
thoracic limb. This condition rapidly progressed Pfizer) was given subcutaneously at a dose of 8.75
during that day, to the extent that cat became unable to mg/kg/24 h. Diazepam (0.2 mg/kg (IV)) was
vocalize. On physical examination the cat displayed administered every 12 h, resulting in a minimal
extension and rigidity of its front limbs, more reduction of muscle rigidity. During the first five days
pronounced in the right forelimb, right hind limb, tail of treatment, manual expression of the urinary bladder
and neck (Fig. 2). Heart rate and respiratory rate were was necessary, due to external urethral sphincter
normal, and the rectal temperature was 39.9 °C. hypertonus. During the same period the cat was
Abdominal palpation revealed a distended urinary unable to prehend and chew canned food, but was able
Corresponding author: Maksimovi ć Alan, DVM, M.Sc., to swallow. Therefore, assisted feeding was prescribed Ph.D., research field: small animal surgery analgesia and
anesthesia. with high-fibre food combined with lactulose at dose
Tetanus in Cat: From Neglected Wound to Neuromuscular Disorder—Case Report
visible ataxia. On the 23rd day the client reported the cat had successfully jumped from floor to sofa and back for the first time.
3. Discussion
Although cats are known to be resistant to the effects of the Clostridium tetani exotoxin, cases of
Fig. 1 Rigid extension of the neck and wound presentation
tetanus in this species have been reported [1, 2]. Signs
after scab removing.
can be limited to a single limb, causing monoparesis associated with extensor rigidity [1] or manifest in all
four limbs [2]. Rapid onset and generalization of clinical signs is more likely if the wound is located near the head [3]. This phenomenon reflects the typical course of tetanus, as the majority of the toxin is absorbed by the peripheral nerve terminals near the wound and transported intra-axonally to the spinal cord [2]. In the present case, the entry point for the clostridial organisms was the wound on the left side of
the neck. Consequently, muscle rigidity was evident
Fig. 2 Clinical presentation of the cat at the second day of treatment.
first in the region of the neck and in thoracic limbs, subsequently involving the pelvic limbs and the tail.
Carpal joints were in partial flexion. Thoracic limb rigidity with elbow extension and carpal flexion has been previously described in cats with tetanus, and this seems to be a feature of this disease in cats, while dogs with tetanus present with carpal extension [2].
In this case, the presentation of rapidly progressive extensor rigidity could be due to the cat’s age. Younger animals generally demonstrate a more severe form of tetanus as a result of their immature natural
Fig. 3 Distended urinary bladder and intestines filled with
immunity [4]. Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and
feces are shown.
a history of a recent or old wound [2, 4, 5]. The first of 1 mL/4.5 kg/12 h. The cat was sent home with
clinical sign of tetanus in cats occurs between two specific instructions regarding bedding, feeding and
days and three weeks post injury [6]. In this case, the minimizing CNS stimulation.
incubation period was unknown, because the cat was After five days of therapy the cat began to vocalize.
found injured. The incubation period was known to be The rigidity of neck, limbs and tail decreased and
longer than 5 days (period from adoption to first minimal movement of the head was observed. Five
clinical sign), though.
days later she was able to stand with mild motor Treatment was directed at controlling the infection activity difficulties. Following day 15 of treatment the
(surgical wound debridement and administration of cat has been able to walk on a level surface without
Metronidazole), neutralizing the toxin and relieving
184
Tetanus in Cat: From Neglected Wound to Neuromuscular Disorder—Case Report
the spasticity [5]. We did not use tetanus antitoxin, in Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery 4: 209. [2] De Risio, L., and Gelati, A. 2003. “Tetanus in the
consideration of the onset of symptoms and the time Cat—an Unusual Presentation.” Journal of Feline
of patient presentation. Antitoxin neutralizes only Medicine and Surgery 5: 237-40. unbound circulating toxin; it has no effect on bound
[3] Grace, S. F. 2011. Tetanus. In: Gary D. Norsworthy (ed) toxin. Therefore, it should be administered as soon as
The Feline Patient. 498-9, 4th edition. Wiley-Blackwell. [4] Greene, C. E. 2012. Tetanus. In: Greene Infectious
possible, though it does not necessarily speed the rate Diseases of the Dog and Cat. 423-31, 4th edition.
of recovery [3]. The benefit of tetanus antitoxin in cats
Georgia: Athens.
remains uncertain, insofar as there is too little [5] Garosi, L. 2012. “Neurological Lameness in the Cat: information in the literature regarding its safety and
Common Causes and Clinical Approach.” Journal of efficacy [7]. Resolving tetanus in cats without the use Feline Medicine and Surgery 14: 85-93. [6] Tomek, A., Kathmann, I., Faissler, D., Cizinauskas, S.,
of antitoxin has been previously reported [6, 8]. Timmann, D., Reimer, Y., Moser, J., and Jaggy, A. 2004. Prompt presumptive diagnosis and beginning of
“Tetanus in Cats: 3 Case Descriptions.” Schweiz Arch adequate therapy potent recovery.
Tierheilkd 146: 295-302. [7] Little, S. 2012. The Cat, Clinical Medicine and
References Management. 764, St. Louise, Missouri.
[8] Langner, K. F., Schenk, H. C., Leithaeuser, C., Tholen, [1] Polizopoulou, Z., Kazakos, G., and Georgiadis, G., et al.
H., and Simon, D. 2011. “Localised Tetanus in a Cat.” 2002. “Presumed Localized Tetanus in Two Cats.”
The Veterinary Record 169: 126-7.
Journal of Life Sciences 10 (2016) 185-191
doi: 10.17265/1934-7391/2016.04.003
DAVID PUBLISHING
Management of Insect Vectors of Viruses in Tomato Plants Using Different Densities of Yellow Traps
Eduardo Domingos Grecco, Dirceu Pratissoli, Hugo Bolsoni Zago, Débora Ferreira Melo Fragoso and José Romário Carvalho Department of Plant Production, Center of Agricultural Sciences and Enengineering (CCAE), Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (CCA-UFES), Alegre, Espírito Santo, Brazil
Abstract: The initial phase of tomato is critical to the infestation of insect vectors of viruses. Therefore, this study aimed to test the use of yellow card traps around the crop to manage insect vectors of viruses and test the best density of traps/tomato plants. Yellow card traps were placed on the border of the crop plot to capture adult insect vectors. Density of trap/tomato plant was assessed in 10 blocks at the following levels: 1/25; 1/50; 1/75; 1/100; 1/125; 1/150. The monitoring was carried out in 1% of the crop during 60 days in 2011 and 2012 crop. The evaluated systems were Conventional and Phytosanitary Pest Management (PPM). During 2011 season the Conventional system received 14 insecticide applications whereas only 6 insecticide applications were made on the PPM, representing a reduction of 133%. In 2012, the crop under Conventional system was subjected to 15 applications of insecticides, over
8 on PPM, with a reduction of 87.5%. The PPM allowed a 90% reduction in application cost for this insects, obtaining a reduction of R$1,345.00/ha. The highest density was 60 plants/trap. We can conclude that the yellow card traps in tomato crop decreased infestations of insect vectors of viruses.
Key words: Viruses vectors, Solanum lycopersicum, yellow card trap.
1. Introduction Sulzer Macrosiphum euphorbiae Thomas (Homoptera: Aphididae), which transmit four types of viruses,
The tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Miller), is a tomato yellow top and tomato mosaic, the “Y” and solanaceous with socioeconomic benefits, but the virus yellow botton. The insects known as thrips, implementation of this crop is considered as a high Frankliniella schultzei Trybom and Thrips palmi risk one due the occurrence of pests and diseases Karny (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), also fit in this category, throughout the cycle [1, 2]. responsible for transmitting the virus complex called Large leaf exchange area and staggered tomatoes tomato spotted wilt. The whitefly, Bemisia tabaci planting in nearby areas are considered the main Gennadius (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), is another factors to insect vectors of viruses onset. The viruses transmitter, which is responsible for spreading formation of an ideal microclimate and constant four viruses, the most common cause of tomato availability of food for long periods allows a golden mosaic and Tospoviruses. These viruses are concurrency of several generations in high population considered limiting factors because infected plants levels of insect vectors of viruses in tomato [3, 4]. cannot produce fruits, or when produced, they do not The first stage of crop development, which lasts up meet market requirements [5, 6]. to 60 days, is considered critical to virus vectors. In any pest management program it is essential to These insects are classified as aphids, Myzus persicae monitor arthropod pests and pests which do not occur
in an agricultural system, since they facilitate decision Corresponding author: Débora Ferreira Melo Fragoso,
making concerning the introduction of control doctor, research fields: entomology, viruses vectors, solanum
lycopersicum and yellow card trap. measures. Therefore, it is important to use colored
186 Management of Insect Vectors of Viruses in Tomato Plants Using Different Densities of Yellow Traps
yellow card traps and their correct distribution in the every 7 days. We used a 1.3 × 0.6 m spacing (lines × planting area.
plants).
The objective of this research was to test the use of Systems management reviews. The systems yellow card traps surrounding the crop to manage
evaluated were: (1) Phytosanitary Pest Management insect vectors and assess the best density of (PPM) [8] and adapted monitoring pests [9] (Table 1) trap/tomato plants.
and in decision making to the application of insecticides based on the level of infestation in the
2. Materials and Methods
field. (2) Conventional (producer), who adopted The experiments were conducted by the Nucleus of
calendar sprays drawn up by producers where Scientific and Technological Development in applications started seven days after transplanting and Phytosanitary Management of Pests and Diseases
continued to be held twice a week regardless of the (NUDEMAFI), Federal University of Espírito Santo
level of pest infestation in the field (Table 2). (CCA-UFES), in 2011 and 2012 harvests in Cachoeiro
Pesticides that producers used to control insect vectors
de Itapemirim, geographical coordinates 20° 50 ′ 56″
of viruses were used.
south and 41° 06 ′ 46″ west (Distrito Córrego dos Biocontrol® yellow card traps (100 cm × 30 cm) Monos)—Espírito Santo in tomato plantations treated
with adhesive glue were placed around the tomato with Conventional and Phytosanitary Pest PPM for adults insects vectors of viruses were Management (PPM). The experiment was conducted
captured and did not cause damage to tomato crop. during May-September of both crop the variety used
These traps were changed every 20 days because they was Ibatã (recommended for the region). The lie with the area of adhesive glue without empty cultivation, transplanting, staking, tying, designated
spaces for capturing or young adults because of the rig and thinning were performed following crop
loss of the chemical structure of the adhesive insects, recommendations [7].
because the field receives solar rays that degrade the We adopted the guidance system with two stems
adhesive, making traps less sticky. per plant in vertical staking, the most used by
The experiment was conducted in a plot with 2,000 producers of staked tomatoes in the State of Espírito
plants consisting in 4 repetitions. The monitoring Santo. This method was based on the conduction of
reviews were made 7 days after planting, in 1% of the plants on bamboo stakes on which plants were tied
crop. For each repetition 1 random spot was assessed
Table 1 Pest, sampling methods and action level adopted in the Phytosanitary Pest Management (PPM) system [9].
Pest Vector
Action level Whitefly—Bemisia tabaci (Tospoviruses)
Sampling Method
1 vector by rod in mean Vectors
Aphids—Mysus perssicae and Knock rod in PVC boxes and/or 0.5 thrips/rod in Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Mosaics)
Thrips—Frankliniella schultzei (winter cropping tomato) tomato
with blue background
Table 2 Insecticides used by producers in Phytosanitary Pest Management (PPM) and conventional.
Product Active Ingredient
Dose mL/ha Actara 250 WG
MAPA Register Chemical
Thiamethoxam 10,098 Neonicotinoid 500-1,000 Platinum Neo
50-100 Imidacloprid +
Connect Beta-ciflutrin
Oberon Espiromesifen 1,706 Keto-enol 500-600 Mospilan Acetamiprid 10,498
Neonicotinoid 250-400
Management of Insect Vectors of Viruses in Tomato Plants Using Different Densities of Yellow Traps
with 5 plants in a row, being evaluated the top of the The level of infestation observed in Fig. 1, in 2011 plants [10]. These evaluations were performed making
shows that only assumed whitefly vector values knock rod in a plastic tray (40 cm × 20 cm × 10 cm)
greater than 1 vector/rod to the PPM and of blue color, which accounted adult insects present
Conventional systems. For the sum of the vectors of and alive. The index for application of insecticide, if
viruses, conventional was above or equal to the action necessary, a first vector is rod. The data were analyzed
level in 80% of samples, compared to 30% to PPM. It through Shapiro-Wilk test of normality and absence
can be seen the occurrence of population peaks even by non-parametric Mann-Whitney P ≤ 0.05.
when there were no sprays, which can be attributed to The density experiment of yellow card trap/plants
climatic factors such as humidity and temperature. In was in an area with 8,000 plants, the following
the 2011 harvest, for conventional tillage, there were densities were used: 1/25 (= 0.04); 1/50 (= 0.02); 1/75
14 applications of insecticides listed in Table 2, (= 0.13); 1/100 (= 0.01); 1/125 (= 0.008); 1/150 (=
compared with 6 applications of PPM in the same 0.007) trap/plants. As control treatment, yellow traps
season.
were not used and the experimental unit was In Table 4 (2012 harvest) is shown that the average composed of 1,000 (= 0.001) tomato plants over
infestation of thrips was not significant to crops and conventional planting. The experiment was conducted
conventional tomato PPM, no application is in 10 blocks, and the evaluations were done twice a
recommended to insect vectors. However, to aphids week for 60 days, which is the most critical period for
and whitefly vector, the PPM infestation was viruses in tomato. Yellow card traps (100 cm × 30 cm)
significant compared with the conventional one. were distributed equidistantly among the plants
Population reduction of aphids and whitefly vectors in according to its scope and so they did not interfere one
PPM occurred due the use of yellow card traps around over the other. Data were subjected to analysis of
the crop, which allowed the capture of adult vectors. exponential regression. To estimate the best density
The average adult whiteflies number in the the linearization curve using a logarithmic conventional system was 61% higher than that transformation was performed.
obtained in the PPM. When summed viruses vectors, it is observed that conventional system achieved a
3. Results and Discussion
63% higher rate of adult vectors in the field. In Table 3 (2011 harvest) is shown that average
The level of infestation observed in Fig. 2 (2012 infestation of thrips and aphids were not significant to
harvest) shows that only whitefly assumed values crops and conventional tomato PPM. However, to
exceeding a vector/rod in both treatments. In the sum whitefly and the sum of the vectors, the PPM was
of viruses vectors, conventional was above or equal significant compared to Conventional. For whitefly in
the action level in 85% of samples, versus only 40% PPM, the average values of adults have not reached
of PPM. A whitefly was the most abundant species the level of action being 60% below the average
caught in yellow card traps. In the 2012 harvest, using obtained by conventional tillage. When summed the
conventional tillage, there were 15 insecticides viruses vectors, we observed that the PPM was below
applications listed in Table 2, compared with 8 PPM the action level, unlike conventional that achieved a
applications in the same harvest.
56% higher rate of adults in tomato. A reduction in fly The use of traps to capture adults is allowed by a vectors population in PPM due to the use of yellow
physical barrier or color. The attraction of whitefly by card traps around the crop reduced the use of specific
traps of different colors. Researches have recently insecticides to control insect vectors of viruses.
studied and related that insects are lured by colors
188 Management of Insect Vectors of Viruses in Tomato Plants Using Different Densities of Yellow Traps
Table 3 Average number (± SEM) of adult thrips, aphids, whitefly vectors and samples collected in tomato planting Conventional and Phytosanitary Pest Management systems (PPM) Cachoeiro de Itapemirim, 2011 harvest.
Insect pests
Systems thrips aphids whitefly vectors Conventional
1.495 ± 0.168a PPM
0.955 ± 0.157b Means followed by the same letter in the column do not differ by Mann-Whitney test P ≤ 0.05.
Fig. 1 Infestation of insect vectors of viruses in the 2011 index from tomato crops in conventional Phytosanitary Pest Management (PPM) in Cachoeiro de Itapemirim.
Table 4 Average number (± SEM) of adult thrips, aphids, whitefly, vectors collected in tomato planting Conventional and Phytosanitary Pest Management systems (PPM) in Cachoeiro de Itapemirim, 2012 harvest.
Insect pests
Systems thrips aphids whitefly vectors Convencional
1.660 ± 0.200a PPM