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Animal Reproduction Science 60–61 2000 15–29 www.elsevier.comrlocateranireprosci
Bioethics: limits to the interference with life
S.B. Christiansen , P. Sandøe
The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural UniÕersity, GrønnegardsÕej 8, 1870 Frederiksberg C,
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Copenhagen, Denmark
Abstract
The paper presents a review of various ethical considerations to which the application of modern biotechnology in breeding of domestic animals gives rise. The review is based on an
automated literature search, covering papers and reports within agricultural bioethics published since 1992. The aim is to present the different points of view in a clear, unbiased manner. First the
various concerns and viewpoints are presented. The concerns are divided into three main categories: animal welfare concerns, concerns about animal integrity and concerns relating to
human health and environmental issues. Then follows a discussion of how to weigh potentially conflicting concerns against each other. The paper concludes with suggestions about how ethical
issues should be handled in practice. q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Ethics; Agricultural bioethics; Animal ethics; Animal welfare; Farm animal breeding; Farm animal reproduction; Biotechnology; Gene technology; Cloning; Transgenic animals
1. Introduction
That the French philosopher, mathematician and scientist Rene Descartes succumbed,
´
in February 1650, to the cold and harsh Swedish winter, according to one anecdote, came as a surprise to his host, Queen Christina of Sweden. In commenting on the death
of the great man, Christina is alleged to have referred sympathetically to the view, held by some at the time, that Descartes’ understanding the human body was such that he
would surely have the power to prolong his own life for as long as he wished.
To be able to control the processes of life is clearly an ambition of the modern sciences of which Descartes was a true pioneer. According to modern science, life is
Corresponding author. Tel.: q45-35283075; fax: q45-35283022. Ž
. E-mail address: sbckvl.dk S.B. Christiansen .
0378-4320r00r - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Ž
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part of nature. All of nature can be investigated by uniform methods, and the results of these investigations are laws of nature which can be expressed in the language of
mathematics. Armed with an understanding of the underlying laws of nature, man is able to control and manipulate the processes of life to his own benefit.
This vision is still generally accepted within science. However, it has become clear that the task of understanding and controlling the processes of life was somewhat
underestimated by Descartes and his contemporaries. Only during the 20th century have scientists made genuine progress in explaining and
usefully modifying the processes of life. The main leap forward was, of course, the rediscovery of Mendelian genetics at the beginning of the century. Since the 1930s, this
theory has been put to use in an ever more efficient and systematic way, particularly in breeding domestic animals with desired traits. Thus, this knowledge enables the animal
breeder to plan how he wants future generations of domestic animals to be.
A number of reproductive technologies have been developed to make selective breeding more efficient. Artificial insemination, freezing of semen, embryo transfer,
cloning of embryos, and trans-vaginal oocyte recovery followed by in vitro embryo production, are increasingly used to ensure that animals with good genetic potential
produce more offspring than they would otherwise have had. These techniques reduce the generation interval, which means that the breeder’s aims can be rapidly realised.
Looking ahead, sex selection is another reproductive technology which could improve breeding efficiency, e.g. by selecting only females for milk production and males for
production of meat.
However, it is molecular genetics that holds the promise for a new quantum leap forward in man’s ability to control the processes of life. By means of so-called marker
assisted selection it is possible to select highly specific traits at the genetic level. Moreover, through transgenesis, genes, and their phenotypic expression, may be moved
across the species barrier.
Until now molecular genetics has had relatively little impact on the breeding of domestic animals. This seems to have been for two reasons: First, scientific understand-
ing of how the individual genes interact with the animal’s phenotypic traits is at present limited. Secondly, the technology of gene transfer is still in its infancy. However, the
future may present refined techniques to modify animals. A lot of the ongoing research is aimed at improving functional traits of the animals, e.g. their disease resistance.
Viewed in the context of these developments, the high-profile unveiling of the cloned sheep, Dolly, by scientists at the Roslin Institute in Scotland in February 1997, was
merely one further step in our efforts to interfere with the processes of life. Cloning somatic cells may turn out to be a useful way of disseminating the genes of female
animals which possess desirable genetic potential; and the technique used to create Dolly may help in creating genetically modified animals from modified cells and
thereby boost the development of transgenic animals.
However, viewed from another perspective, Dolly was a major event — one, which will go into the history books. This single sheep brought to many people’s attention the
fact that scientists had made a major breakthrough in their attempt to manage and control life. It also gave rise to a widespread call for ethical limits to the interference
with life to be established and enforced. Until recently the main limits to interference
with life were of a technical kind: of what it is possible to do. Now, and increasingly, scientists are faced with ethical limits: of what it is acceptable to do.
The aim of this paper is to present an overview of various ethical considerations to which the application of modern biotechnology in breeding of domestic animals gives
rise. The review is based on an automated literature search, covering papers and reports within agricultural bioethics published since 1992. The focus is on clarification and
understanding rather than criticism, and therefore we try to present the various view- points in a clear, unbiased manner.
First, the various concerns are presented. There follows a discussion of how to weigh potentially conflicting concerns against each other. The paper concludes with some
comments on how ethical issues should be handled in practice. The increase in power, and the potential increase of speed and efficiency that modern
breeding and biotechnology presents, force us both to recognise our moral responsibility Ž
. and to discuss the limits of acceptability Schroten, 1992; Habgood, 1993 . In such
discussion, ethics provides a way of ensuring systematic and rational reflection on the moral issues involved within a framework of values and principles guiding behaviour
Ž .
Schroten, 1992; Brom and Schroten, 1993 . Our efforts to breed for higher production efficiency and our use of biotechnology raise concerns regarding both animal welfare
and animal integrity. These concerns can usefully be explored further: the ethical significance of breeding goals and biotechnologies can thus be evaluated according to
Ž their potential to damage animal welfare and violate animal integrity Mepham, 1993b;
. Mepham, 1995 . In addition to the concerns regarding animals, concerns relating to
humans or biological and environmental issues may be considered.
2. Ethical concerns relating to animals
