E.g. I talked my brother the problems.
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C. Writing 1 The Definition of Writing
Erika Lindemann proposed the definition of writing as a process of communication which uses a conventional graphic system to convey a message to
a reader.
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In addition, writing can also be defined as the process of recording spoken language using a system of visual marks on a surface. The concept
includes the particular writing system which is available for a language, the choice and mastery of a particular medium of expression usually hand writing or typing
and the product which emerges the piece of writing or composition.
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Also, writing is defined as the activity to inscribe words, letters, and symbols on a surface, as by cutting, carving, embossing or marking with pen or
pencil in a form to be read.
34
While, Keith Johnson and Helen Johnson in Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics proposed the definition of writing as an important skill and
means of recording, assimilating and reformulating knowledge and of developing and working through writer’s own ideas. It may also be e mean of personal
discovery of creativity and of self expression. Based on some experts’ definitions above, it can be concluded that writing is
a process of recording spoken language using a system of visual marks on a surface to convey writer’s ideas to a reader.
31
Martin Parrot, Grammar for English language Teacher…… p. 102-103
32
Erika Lindemann, a Rhetoric for Writing Teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982, p.
11
33
David Crystal, an Encyclopedia of Language Language. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1993, p. 421
34
Michael Agnes, et al ed…. p. 1542
2 The Kinds of Writing
To arrange writing, there were some kinds of writing. According to Edward P. J. Corbitt, the kinds of writing can be divided into:
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a. Narration Narration is the form of writing that informs a story or gives an account of
an event. In other words, this kind of writing consists of a series of events in which action dominates the story. Narration is constructed chronologically order
and can be found in diaries, autobiography, memoirs and anecdotes. b. Description
Description is a writing which presents a verbal picture of a person, a place, a thing or a scene – an image in the mind of listener or reader. In other words, the
writer of descriptive writing appeals to a reader’s imagination and perceptive sense. The writer usually uses verbs of sense to describe the characteristics of an
object how it looks, feels or sounds. The purpose of this kind or writing is to create pictures or images in reader’s minds about particular objects which a
writer’s describes. c. Argumentation
Argumentation is a writing in which the writer attempts to persuade an audience or reader to adopt or accept his view or opinion concerning certain
subjects. It can also be used to prove or disapprove a statement or case which supported by valid facts. It can be found in promotion letters, proposals, editorials,
and scientific reports.
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35
Edward P. J. Corbitt, The Little Rhetoric and Handbook with Readings, Glenview: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1983, p.173 – 211
36
Edward P. J. Corbett, The Little Rhetoric and Handbook with Readings… p. 173 – 211
d. Exposition Exposition is explanation.
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In other words, it is the form of writing which informs or explains something. The purpose of this kind or wring is to expose
writer’s ideas and the writer should make his ideas as clear as possible with logical explanation. Also, writer’s explanation in words should be accompanied
by diagrams or pictures. The example of this kind is technical report, scientific writing and news stories.
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While, Margaret Coffey divided the kinds of writing into four categories. They are narration, description, exposition and persuasion.
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Basically, the term of persuasion is the same term of writing as argumentation mentioned by Edward P.
J. Corbett.
3 The Types of Writing
Besides, the four kinds of writing mentioned above, there are also some types of writing. In general, there are three types of writing which according to
Campbell are: Academic writing, Business writing and Fiction writing.
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While, Tricia Hedge divided the types of writing based on the primary distinction
between personal writing and public writing into six categories: 1 Personal writing; it is writing for people which the result of the writing
will not be shown to others. It includes various kinds of memories, as well as diaries and journals.
2 Study writing; it is also oneself and the result of the writing for academic purpose. The students make note while reading, take notes in lectures, and make
summary for exam revision.
37
Richard D. Mallery, Grammar, Rhetoric and Composition, New York: Barnes and Nobles, Inc., 1967, p.143
38
Edward P. J. Corbett, The Little Rhetoric and Handbook with Readings… p.208
39
Margaret Pogemiller Coffey, Communication Through Writing, New Jersey: Prentice hall, Inc., 1987, p. 151
40
Cherry Campbell, Teaching Second – language wring. New York: Heinle Heinle Publisher, 1998, p. 11
3 Public writing; it is writing as a member of public to organization or institutions. It includes such as activities as writing letters of enquiry, complaint,
letter to editor from filling and applications. 4 Creative writing; it includes poems, stories, rhymes, drama. These types
of writing are mainly for personal purpose, but may be shared with others. It is a kind of writing most commonly found at primary and lower secondary level in
mother tongue classrooms. 5 Social writing; it is a category which includes all the writing that
established and maintained social relationships with family and friend. For instance, personal letter, invitations, and notes with congratulations.
6 Institutional writing; it relates to professional purpose of writing and it needed by business executives, teachers, and engineers.
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4 The Process of Writing
Writing is not a simple process, it is a hard work. However, writing is an opportunity to convey writer’s ideas and to communicate his views to people.
Sometimes, students can not communicate their ideas systematically to others in a written language. They find that their writing is bad and ineffective. Actually, a
writer requires time and some process to make an effective good writing. To make writing effective, the students should know some steps to make a
good writing. In his book, John Langan proposed some steps to make an effective writing which can be seen below:
1. A writer should decide first what the general idea of his writing is. 2. Supporting his general idea with some specific details.
3. Organizing and connecting each specific detail in his writing. 4. Checking the draft from sentence – skill mistakes.
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41
Tricia Hedge, Writing: Resource Books for Teacher, New York: Oxford University Press, 1988, p. 95 – 96
42
John Langan, English Skills. New York: Mc Graw – Hill, Inc., 1977, p. 5-25
In evaluating writing, the writer should also check the unity of the writing, the supporting details, the coherence of writing and the sentence skills.
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In addition, Campbell gave some steps in the writing process which are as follows:
a Planning the theme of writing. b Gathering information to make supporting details.
c Drafting the supporting details into a draft. d Revising the draft.
e Editingproofreading.
44
43
Langan, English Skills. ……. p. 44-50
44
Cherry Campbell, Teaching Second – Language writing. New York: Heinle Heinle Publisher, 1998, p. 11
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND FINDINGS
Kategori