The Influence of the “Terroir” Concerning the Quantity and Quality of Grapes Yield at White Grapevine Varieties Growing in the Iasi Vineyard

The Influence of the “Terroir” Concerning the Quantity and Quality of Grapes Yield at White Grapevine Varieties Growing in the Iasi Vineyard

Liliana Rotaru, Vasile Stoleru, Feodor Filipov, Mihai Mustea and Gabriela Petrea University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Ia şi, Alee M. Sadoveanu No. 3, Iaşi 700490, Romania

Received: November 02, 2010 / Accepted: January 31, 2011 / Published: August 30, 2011.

Abstract: Romania is famous of the potential of his vineyard, winemaking is a traditional occupation, in fact it can be said that there are many areas that can provide a vineyard product. Moreover, typicity and authenticity of a wine are defining conditions under conditions of fierce international competition to guarantee success of wine. There were concerns for determining areas with designation of origin from a vineyard that will produce quality wines, but the purpose of this study is to delimit the level of a vineyard small area that can ensure the achievement of a certain type of wine, a quality required by consumers. The research was made during 2006-2008 and revealed that the production of quality grapes and are influenced by different factors such as genetic, environmental and technological acting in complex. This is a first attempt to study characterize the concept of “terroir”, as applied in the Copou vineyard from Iasi county and provides information on the behavior of two varieties of grapes for wine: Feteasc ă Regală and Muscat Ottonel. Depending on the purpose, observations and calculations have found the influence of soil characteristics on several biochemical parameters and productive at varieties of Feteasc ă Regală and Muscat Ottonel (soluble carbohydrate content, total acidity, the average yield of grapes) for the purpose of knowledge than a more detailed wine center in northeast of Romania. The results of this study can be used to determine with precision small areas crop at the parcel that will produce quality wines.

Key words: Iasi, terroir, varieties, behaviour, interactions.

of the product name attested. All these features lead to

1. Introduction

the so-called “typicity” recognized by consumers. Wine is a product bearing a designation of origin or

The notion of “terroir” is old from antiquity. geographical place, and possessing superior ownership

Importance was indicated by antiquity farmers, which revealed by a perfect harmony between all its

said that their descriptions, the place to come and to components. Designation of origin is not only an

obtain a mysterious link called “d'humeur terrestre”, as indication of origin, but has the features of originality

stated by Vitruve, cited by Martin [1]. In France since arising from the use of traditional production the Middle Ages until the twentieth century, many technologies. The concept of “terroir viticole” as a way

interpreter talk about wine quality in relation to the to customize a particular type of wine encompasses two

(place) of its production. This reference was appeared categories of factors. On the one hand there are natural

in 1694 For the first time in “Dictionnaire de factors (climate, soil, rock) as a fundamental axis and

l`Académie Françoise, dedie au Roy”, which is defined the same, and on the other hand, human factors, which

as “TERROIR. s.m. Terre considérée par rapport à vary in that they influence the production (acquisition)

l’agriculture. Terroir fertile, bon terroir, mauvais terroir … on dit que Du vin sent le terroir, qu’il a un

Corresponding author: Liliana Rotaru, Ph.D., professor, research fields: viticulture, ampelography, climatic changes.

goût de terroir, pour dire qu’il a une certaine odeur, un E-mail: lirotaru@uaiasi.ro.

The Influence of the “Terroir” Concerning the Quantity and Quality Grapes Yield at

White Grapevine Varieties Growing in the Iasi Vineyard

certain goût qui vient de la qualité du terroir (Land y local climate, as a result of the interaction type considered in relation to agriculture. Fertile land, good

(subtype) from the ground and the secondary biotope soil, bad soil ... it is said that the wine smells like soil, it

factors (topography, exposition, altitude, type of has an earthy taste, to say he has a certain smell, a taste

vegetation, presence of river water, etc.). that comes from the quality of the soil)”.

The origin of a wine is the fact of production. Explanatory concept of “terroir” is very diverse and

Therefore certain procedures about investigating the tends to globalize. One can say that it embodies

authenticity and typicity of wine are established. These concepts: historical, socio-economic, cultural, climatic,

are essential conditions to increase consumer geological, soil. A lot of works have addressed the

confidence and food safety. Microclimate of a vineyard notion of “terroir” in all aspects, but there is no unity on

field can be influenced positively or negatively by this scientific concept [2]. In France INAO, the body

topoclimate conditions (generated by relief and which certifies controlled designation of origin (AOC)

exhibition ground), but the fitoclimate (resulting from defined the “terroir” that a merger between a

the interaction between planting distances, means of geographical area, a plant or animal species, tradition

support, the management of logs, type of cutting, and technology of production. This merger gives the 2 loading the bear to m i.e.). Microclimate conditions

product features result irreproducible elsewhere, undergo relatively small changes in a vineyard field because all above are non-transferable.

compared to the changes of a soil. These changes are All these features lead to the so-called “typicity”,

determined by the type of soil (which can vary the area recognized by consumers because the following

bigger or smaller) and mineralogical nature of the conditions are met:

litological substrate (clay, marl, dust, sand, etc.). y the geographical territory has its own

Response of the vine by the overall condition of the characteristics;

plant, the quantity and quality of finished products y interaction of the plant (animal) and the crop

obtained in each wine-growing area gives rise to a (production) is very close;

subsystem composed of the elementary area, vines and y the tradition and technology of production is met by

made wine. This unit can be called natural territorial producers.

base (Unit Naturalia Terroir de Base). Identified and The concept of “terroir” includes two categories of

materialized on the ground, the natural unit is the basic factors. On the one hand there are natural factors

territorial area variable in size (from several hectare to (climate, soil, rock) as a fundamental axis and the same,

several tens or even hundreds of hectare) and recover and on the other hand, the human factors that can vary

the species in a highly specific ecological conditions. by how they affect production (obtaining) the product

2. Materials and Methods

name attested [3].

A vineyard, center field or vineyard wine (depending In the center of the vineyard Copou-Iasi, on the area that occupies each) can be considered a

investigations were conducted under stationary series of smaller areas called vines elementary areas [3].

ecopedological (Didactic farm) planted with varieties: These basic areas are different between them through

Feteasc ă Regală and Muscat Ottonel, located in the following components:

different conditions of soil, slope and slope position y the nature of the substrate litologic (clay, marn,

and the targeted production accumulation in sugars and limestone, loess, sand, etc.);

total acidity of must and wine quality. Varieties are y type and subtype of land formed on a substrate

grafted on to rootstock Berlandieri x Riparia Kober 5 litologic, depending on the rainfall;

BB. Distance planting are 2.2/1.2 m, the load semi-high

The Influence of the “Terroir” Concerning the Quantity and Quality Grapes Yield at

White Grapevine Varieties Growing in the Iasi Vineyard

trunk, spur-pruning cordon links with cuts in the bear Romania (Fig. 2), in the area around the intersection of (2 buds pierce the heart of 4-5 buds), which allows

parallel 47º10' north latitude with meridian 27º35' east providing a load average of 40-45 eyes/butt (Fig. 1).

longitude, the east-northeast Moldovenesc Plateau in The maintenance of the soil is black field and

the area Contact the Plain of Moldavia with hilly maintenance work is applied to vines vineyard specific

Plateau Central Moldovenesc, cross marked by industrial ecosystem.

imposing coastline of Iasi, further to the south east of Soil types within the bounded ecogeopedological

no less imposing side of the Prut Face. The climate is sequences present a pretability differentiated in terms

temperate continental with shades excessive, the of obtaining optimal production quantity and quality,

position of interference between moderate continental depending on their mineralogical, physical and climate of Central Moldavian Plateau and the agricultural. There were two bounded territorial units

continental excessive Plain of Moldavia, interference namely: Cambic Calcaric Erodosol with loamy clay

that occurs at approximately 200-250 m in the slant of texture and Calcaric mixic Regosols, both formats on

the Coast Moldavia.

deposits loessoide/marne clays. The Coast of Iasi is characterized by hills with an average altitude of 100-150 m, with a maximum

3. Results

altitude of 209 m at the top of the hill Breazu. The

Production of wines with high and typical slopes of the land under vines are between 5° and 20° originality can only be achieved in certain areas under

with a south, southeast and southwest. These vines available resources heliothermal (ecoclimat),

conditions result from the action of the erosion of river soil (soil, lithology) and microrelief which stimulates

systems in the region including Bahlui River and its oenological potential of vinifera varieties cultivated

tributaries. Also added to the lithological friability, soil characteristics and agricultural different soils

the intervention of man has broken the natural taken in the study had a major impact on the behavior

balance, promoting erosion accelerated by clearing of of vinifera varieties in terms of obtaining of optimum

forests and pastures. From the perspective of geological production quantity and quality.

formations in which surface is carved relief today are for the most part, represented by a complex of

3.1 Geographycal Conditions weathered marl and clay with sand, plus, in various

Iasi vineyard is located in the surroundings of this areas, thin layers calcareous sandstone, oolitic great and ancient urban center of north-eastern

limestones, conglomerates and gravels [4].

Fig. 1 Detail on the vine cutting.

The Influence of the “Terroir” Concerning the Quantity and Quality Grapes Yield at

White Grapevine Varieties Growing in the Iasi Vineyard

Fig. 2 Vineyard area in north-eastern Romania.

These sediments of Middle and Upper Sarmatian

the vineyard ecosystem (Table 1).

submitted to the phenomena of weathering-alteration

Table 1 Characteristics of ecoclimatic Iasi vineyard.

led to cloak-déluvio almost continuous colluvial slopes [5]. Iasi vineyard 200 m alt. medium

Period chern zemlya = black = ground), soil typical of

The soils of the area of Iasi are Chernozem (Russian:

Bioclimate indices

Period

1896-1955 1999-2008 Disorder (60 years) (10 years) found

continental regions. They come from the formation of

The average annual temperature (℃)

9.6 9.8 +0.2 organic matter on and in a loess steppe abundant

℃ -22.1 -23.8 +1.7 fertile, balanced by carbonate, and are not subject to

Average monthly air

herbaceous vegetation. They are very black and very

minimum ( )

℃ 35.7 36.2 +0.5 ) leaching of mineral elements of soil [6, 7].

Average monthly air maximum (

Overall heat balance ( ℃ 3,717 )

3.2 Climatic Conditions 3,335.9 +111.9

Active heat balance ( ℃ 3,224 )

Useful thermal balance ( ℃ ) 1,374 1,446.5 +72.5 Thus, it is characterized by contrasts between more

1,496.4 1,529.6 +33.2 extreme seasons, winter is harsh and relatively dry, hot

Real sunburn of the vegetation (no. hours )

517.8 498.6 -19.2 summers is hot and often dry, the spring is moderate

Annual precipitation

amount (mm) Rainfall amount of

heat and warm, and mild autumns is predominantly

335.5 301.9 -33.6 blue [8]. Of course the landscape by its elevation

the vegetation (mm)

70 68 -2 changes, fragmentation, slope, exposure introduces Length of vegetation

Relative air humidity (%)

period (no. days)

microclimatic variations that require further analysis. It

1.81 2.21 +0.20 was followed the evolution of climatic factors on

Indicated heliothermal real

1.40 0.91 -0.49 period of 60 years (1896-1955) and for comparison

Hydrothermal coefficient

7.77 9.03 +1.26 have been the climatic factors in the last period of 10

Vineyard bioclimate index

Oenoclimatic index

years (1999-2008). This led to changes that occurred in 1,795 1,953 +158

Huglin index

The Influence of the “Terroir” Concerning the Quantity and Quality Grapes Yield at

White Grapevine Varieties Growing in the Iasi Vineyard

3.3 Description of Territorials Units Soil Ap 0-18 (27) cm loamy clay; closed brown (10YR 3/2); polyhedron subangular the average among the

In the Didactic farm to USAMV Iasi were two vines and the large angular polyhedron traces of tractor territorial unit soil TUB 1-Cambic Calcaric Erodosol wheels; weak purify the interval between lines and with loamy clay texture and TUB 2-Calcaric mixic moderate tasat the tractor wheel tracks; moderate Regosols (Fig. 3). effervescence with hydrochloric acid (HCl), common Description of TUB 1 is shown in Table 2:

roots, a clear passage.

TUB 1-Cambic Calcaric Erodosol with loamy clay TUB 2-Calcaric mixic Regosols. texture (co-cornevine resulting from decomposing roots of vines).

Fig. 3 The two units studied natural territorial.

The Influence of the “Terroir” Concerning the Quantity and Quality Grapes Yield at

White Grapevine Varieties Growing in the Iasi Vineyard

Table 2 Grain composition, content of calcium carbonate and organic carbona at Cambic Calcaric Erodosol with loamy clay texture.

Deep Pedological

(cm) horizon CaCO % pH Organic

Grain size fractions (mm, %)

3 carbon % 0-18 (27) Apk 57.7 16.5 25.8 4.8

0.02-0.2 0.002-0.02 < 0.002

7.8 1.18 18 (27)-52 Bvk 57.2 16.7 26.1 11.3

8.1 - 52-72 Cca 57.8 15.5 26.7 14.6 8.5

Bvk 18 (27)-52 cm loamy clay, yellowish brown polyhedron angular average of tractor wheel tracks, (10YR 4/4), with stains, efflorescence and coprolite and cevotocine rare, common roots, weak pseudomycelia white calcium carbonate; columnoid

purify the interval between the lines and weak after prismatic structure; cervotocine rare; ierbose common

tasat wheel tractor; effervesce weak to moderate with roots; rare traces roots of calves vine, cornevine rare

hydrochloric acid (HCl), smooth transition. effervesce strong.

(A + B) kd2 38-51 cm clay medium, yellowish Bv2 48-70 cm, clayey loam, yellowish brown (10YR

brown (10YR 3/4) in wet, yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) 5/4), with stains, efflorescence and pseudomycelia

dry material in the alternator very close gray brown white, common calcium carbonate; columnoid (10YR 3/2 ) in the wet, brown (10YR 4/3) dry, prismatic structure; cervotocine rare, rare grassy roots;

yellowish brown (10YR 3/4) the average glomerular trace local roots of the calves vie with nearly vertical

developed low-moderate, moist, friable in wet, distribution, strong effervescence.

moderately dry cohesive; weak compact, low plastic Cca 52-72 cm, clayey loam, yellowish brown (10YR

and adhesive; macropori medium rare, rare cevotocine; 5/5), with stains, efflorescence and pseudomycelia

moderate effervescence; common roots; gradual white, common calcium carbonate; columnoid transition. prismatic structure; cervotocine rare, very rare grassy

(A + B) k 51-62 cm, medium clay; closed brown roots; trace local roots of calves alive with oblique

(10YR 3/3) in the wet, brown to yellowish brown distribution, effervesce strong-strong.

colored closed (10YR 5-4/4) dry, yellowish brown Ck 72-95; loamy clay; dark yellow (10YR 6/6), with

stains (10YR 3/4) in wet, yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) stains, efflorescence and concrete common calcium

dry; polyhedron subangular the average low-moderate carbonate, solid structure; cervotocine rare; trace local

and locally developed prismatic structure columnoid; roots of the vine with oblique orientation, strong

wet, friable in wet, moderately dry cohesive, compact effervescence .

weak, weak plastics and adhesive; macropori medium Description of TUB 2 is shown in Table 3:

rare, rare cevotocine; not ferment; common roots; Ap 0-23 cm; clay environment, very close gray

passage clear, straight shape.

brown (10YR 2.5/2) in wet, yellowish brown closed (A + B) kd2 62-82 cm clay medium, yellowish (10YR 4/4) dry; structure weak medium-grained

brown (10YR 4/4) in wet, yellowish brown (10YR 5/5) moderately developed; wet, friable in wet, moderate

dry material in the alternator very close gray brown cohesive dry, loose, weak plastic and adhesive;

(10YR 3/2 ) in the wet, brown (10YR 4/3) dry, macropori medium rare, rare cevotocine; not ferment;

yellowish brown (10YR 3/4) the average glomerular common roots, gradual transition form right.

developed low-moderate, moist, friable in wet, Am kd 23-38 cm loamy clay, dark (10YR 3/2) moist,

moderately dry cohesive; weak compact, low plastic with local spots of yellowish brown color closed

and adhesive; macropori medium rare, rare cervotocine; (10YR 4/4) to glomerular structure polyhedron moderate effervescence; common roots; gradual subangular the rows of vines and between rows and

transition.

The Influence of the “Terroir” Concerning the Quantity and Quality Grapes Yield at

White Grapevine Varieties Growing in the Iasi Vineyard

Table 3 Grain composition, content of calcium carbonate and organic carbon at Calcaric mixic Regosols.

Deep Pedological

Organic (cm)

Grain size fractions (mm, %)

horizon CaCO 3 % pH

0.02-0.2 0.002-0.02 < 0.002

carbon % 0-23 Apk 56.4 16.1 27.5 3.7 7.6 1.96

23-38 Amk 55.2 18.4 26.4 4.9 8.0 1.67 38-51 Bv1k

54.1 17.8 28.1 7.2 8.18 - 54-90 BCk 56.1 16.9 27.0 10.6 8.4 - 90-110 Cca 55.2 17.9 26.8 17.6 8.6 -

the two basic territorial unit, otherwise it is the main

3.4 Quantity and Quality of Grape Production direction of production that were located in Iasi

In terms of grape production and quality, it is found vineyard. But their culture, weak on fertile soil, rich in that soil with higher fertility (with high in nutrients

calcium carbonates, located to the top of slopes and humus) had a greater capacity for water storage

(Cambic Calcaric Erodosol with loamy clay texture) leading to high yield. Production average grapes

lead to more alcoholic strength, dry extract and obtained within the ecogeopedological sequences

glycerol.

correlated positively with the development of the logs.

4. Conclusions

Analyzing the average data presented in Tables 4 and

5. It is found that grapes yields were higher in both the (1) The type of soil has a significant influence on the varieties grown on limestone Calcaric mixic Regosols

production varieties of vines. This is more obvious in material, which is on average 4.215 kg/plant to the

the case of varieties of high production as Feteasc ă Feteasc ă Regală variety and 2.505 kg/plant the variety

Regal ă and less obvious in the case of high quality Muscat Ottonel. If Cambic Calcaric Erodosol with

varieties such as Muscat Ottonel variety. loamy clay texture, differences in production are the

(2) Careful delineation of the basic territorial units most obvious variety Feteasc ă Regală, who performed

may be decisive for which wine products may be an average of 3.300 kg/plant and less evident in the

obtained from a vineyard, as the samevariety may be variety Muscat Ottonel which has an average located for various production lines. For example production of 2.075 kg/plant. The highest variety Feteasc ă Regală vineyard in Iaşi recover very accumulation of sugars in the grains were recorded in

well Cambic Calcaric Erodosol with loamy clay Cambic Calcaric Erodosol with loamy clay texture,

texture to produce quality wines, while the crop grown poorer in humus and nutrients and richer in carbonates,

on Calcaric mixic Regosols can result in wines with 201.5 g/L at Feteasc ă Regală and 207.5 g/L at Muscat

feedstock for sparkling.

Ottonel. In the crop, the fertile ground unit leads to a (3) The expression type of soil in emphasizing reduction in the accumulation of sugars, the value is

“terroir viticole” of the vineyard is less significant 191.5 g/L with the variety Feteasc ă Regală which is

when high-quality varieties (Muscat Ottonel), these higher than the variety of Muscat Ottonel (197 g/L).

varieties are much more important expression of other If total acidity must be found, as with the production

components (climate, slope, layout, parent rock). of grapes a higher value on fertile soils (Calcaric mixic

Acknowledgments

Regosols) compared with soils rich in carbonates Cambic Calcaric Erodosol with loamy clay texture.

This work was financed by the Executive Unit for Makeup and sensory profile of wines (Tables 6 and 7)

Higher Education Financing and Scientifically Research, show that both varieties have produced quality wine on

project IDEI PCE-1100, code CNCSIS 1141.

The Influence of the “Terroir” Concerning the Quantity and Quality Grapes Yield at

White Grapevine Varieties Growing in the Iasi Vineyard

Table 4 Average yield of grapes (kg/plant), sugar content (g/L) and must acidity (g/L H 2 SO 4 ) at the Feteasca Regala variety.

UTB The type of soil Feature 2006 2007 2008 Average Yield 3.36 3.24 3.03 3.300 1 Cambic Calcaric Erodosol with loamy clay texture

Sugar 198 205 215 201.5 Acidity 5.7 4.1 3.7 4.9

4.30 4.13 3.50 4.215 2 Calcaric mixic Regosols

Yield

Sugar 188 195 210 191.5 Acidity 6.0 4.3 3.9 5.15

Table 5 Average yield of grapes (kg/plant), sugar content (g/L) and must acidity (g/L H 2 SO 4 ) at Muscat Ottonel variety.

UTB The type of soil

2.26 1.89 2.15 2.075 1 Cambic Calcaric Erodosol with loamy clay texture

Yield

Sugar 205 210 209 207.5 Acidity 3.7 3.8 4.2 3.75 Yield

2.81 2.20 2.40 2.505 2 Calcaric mixic Regosols

Sugar 189 197 196 197 Acidity 3.9 4.0 4.3 3.95

Table 6 Sensory profile and makeup of the variety of Feteasca Regala wine.

UTB The type of soil

pH (g/L) 1 Cambic Calcaric Erodosol with loamy clay texture

Alcoholic Strength of acidity

Dry extract Glycerol

(Vol%)

(g/L H 2 SO 4 )

(g/L)

21.12 3.20 9.38 2 Calcaric mixic Regosols

Table 7 Sensory profile and makeup of the variety of Muscat Ottonel wine.

UTB The type of soil

Alcoholic Strength of acidity

Dry extract Glycerol

(g/L) 1 Cambic Calcaric Erodosol with loamy clay texture

(Vol%)

(g/L H 2 SO

(g/L)

pH

20.46 3.26 9.48 2 Calcaric mixic Regosols

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Podgoriile şi vinurile României, Bucureşti (Iasi vineyard, in: Vineyards and Wines of Romania, Romanian Academy

[1] J.C. Martin, Triste “goût de terroir” dans l’histoire du vin Publishing, Bucharest), 2000, pp. 114-140. (in Romanian) (Sad “earthy” in the history of wine), Revue française des

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252-263.

[3] R. Morlat, Les principales approches et méthodes d’étude

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(Interactions soil/root), in: Les bases physiques, chimiques Avenir (The main approaches and methods to study the

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chemical and mineralogical soil science), Presses Publishing), Paris, 2005, pp. 9-12. (in French)

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V.V. Cotea, R. Liliana, L.M. Irimia, C. Cintia, S.T. Romania (Geography of vine and wine in Romania), in:

Sandu-Ville, Effet du rechauffement global sur Romanian Academy (Ed.), Studii si cercetari de geografie

l’ecoclimat de la zone nord de la Moldavie Roumaine (Studies and Research Geography), Bucure şti, 2002, pp.

(Effects of global warming on the eco climate of the area 52-89. (in French)

north of Moldova Romania), in: 31st World Congress of [5]

D.V. Cotea, N. Barbu, C.C. Grigorescu, V.V. Cotea, Vine and Wine, 6th General Assembly of the O.I.V., Podgoria Iasi, in: Editura Academiei Române (Ed),

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Journal of Life Sciences 5 (2011) 654-660

Food Color Memory and Names – A Linguistic Vantage

Jodi Louise Sandford Faculty of Letters and Philosophy, University of Perugia, Perugia 06123, Italy

Received: February 03, 2011 / Accepted: May 31, 2011 / Published: August 31, 2011.

Abstract: We name colors of foods with great ease. This process is conventionalized through our cultures and our biological dictates. People identify food colors through words that are again highly constrained. Embodiment of experience and perception deals with these

constraints to make color term use a cognitively economical mechanism, keeping numbers of concepts in mind through categorial conceptualization in long term memory. The parallel process that puts together our linguistic and visual information, allows the individual to map a correspondence between the two frames. The result of this mapping is a “cognitive color” in long term color memory. This paper presents an experiment in triggering long term memory and the response results. The objective was to verify whether individuals’ cognitive color of well known foods, both raw and cooked, that they had just identified with Natural Color System (NCS) color samples, would be predominantly a primary basic color term, a secondary basic color term, or a complete descriptive utterance. The name used to communicate a desired signification is accessed through the judgement of similarity and difference with a point of reference. In this case, the food color vantage represents the cognitive color remembered.

Key words: Cognitive color, basic color terms, cognitive linguistic constraints, linguistic vantage.

1. Introduction operations, such as the Gestalt principals, to rapidly and accurately make decisions. The nature of reality

We eat, choose, shop for, hunt/gather, cook and refers to how things, actions, etc., are conceptualized, prepare foods to eat. We categorize them constantly. for example, how we perceive something as being First we have to select the food, which means that it has present or absent, e.g., if the peas are green, they are the to be recognizable and edible, and of course we prefer way they are supposed to be. Convention is the social it to be ripe, and fresh, or properly conserved and mechanism that allows a community to agree on how to seasoned. We have to put the food through a process codify relations and language in given situations. The that makes it ready to eat, from the farm to the table. context constrains possible interacting factors and These steps are quite conventionalized through our influences other constraints directly. Our embodiment cultures and our biological dictates. People identify of experience and perception deals with these food colors through words that are again highly constraints to make color term use a cognitively constrained. Linguistic constraints are of four types: economical mechanism, which allows us to keep vast cognitive capacities, the nature of reality, convention, numbers of concepts in mind through categorial context [1]. Cognitive constraints are about the conceptualization in long term memory [2]. The cognitive mechanisms used to understand experience. parallel process activated in our minds in order to They refer to our tendency to apply certain perceptual categorize color terms puts together linguistic and

visual information; it allows the individual to map a Corresponding author: Jodi Louise Sandford, research

professor, Ph.D., research fields: cognitive semantics, correspondence between the two semantic frames or embodiment and conceptual metaphor theory applied to

domains. Evans [3] defines frame as “a linguistic investigation in color, to analysis of comparative

conceptualization in English/Italian, and to experimental schematization of experience” which is represented at studies in color categorization and implicit attitudes. E-mail:

the conceptual level and kept in long-term memory and sandford@unipg.it.

Food Color Memory and Names – A Linguistic Vantage

which relates elements and entities associated with a the NCS sample (Edition 2 of 1750 colors) that was particular culturally embedded scene, situation or event

most similar, in nuance and the degree of blackness from human experience. Frames include different

and colorfulness, to their memory color of first raw attributes, and relations between attributes. Color and

and then cooked spinach, peas, leeks, cauliflower, food are two frames that link together in primary

chicken and beef. In the second part of the experiment, experience.

they were asked to say what they would call the color Basic color terms (BCT) (black, white, red, green,

of each item, e.g., “what would you call the color of yellow, purple, brown, pink, even blue) are all used in

raw spinach? And what would you call the color of reference to foods and cooking processes in recipes.

cooked spinach?”. Each response was registered one at This use of color terms in the cooking process appears

a time.

to have increased in time [4]. With this in mind the

3. Results

objective of this experiment was to see how individuals would call the color of well known foods, both raw and

3.1 NCS Color Identification

cooked. Do individuals name a “cognitive color” with a Each subject reacted to the color search in a different BCT, as Derefeldt et al. suggest [5], with a secondary manner, making comments on how to indicate a change color term, or with a complete descriptive utterance, in food state. Although the inter-individual differences, when asked to name the color of a cooked or raw food as a whole, were wide, the standard deviation between that they have just identified with the NCS color the raw and cooked food was actually contained. Each samples? Will the “technical perceptual task” influence NCS color choice was registered using the number

the “semantic classification task”? This paper explains reference: e.g., 1050: 10 for blackness and 50 for

what occurred when subjects were asked to find the colorfulness. The highest value was 90 and lowest was

color shift of raw food to the cooked version. Even though the food colors had just been identified in a

0. Results indicated that the average difference between the raw and cooked foods was lower and

complex memory processing task, which the author also illustrates here, the color vantage or cognitive

varied less in blackness (M = 5, SD = 6.54) than in color tended to be basic.

colorfulness (M = 5.97, SD = 13.95). The food item comparison resulted with: a greater raw versus cooked

difference in colorfulness than blackness for spinach To see what color words would be used by

2. Methods

(more blackness M = 8, SD = 14.18; and less subjects, the author proceeded in the following way.

colorfulness M =9.5, SD = 16.06) and for peas (same First, the subjects had their vision tested with THE

blackness M = 0, SD = 7.82; and more colorfulness M = CITY UNIVERSITY COLOUR VISON TEST

6.5, SD = 14.35). However, the raw versus cooked (Keeler-LONDON) and no defects were found. The

difference for leeks (more blackness M = 1, SD = 2.11; ten subjects, one at a time, sat at a desk in a lab with

and more colorfulness M = 0.7, SD = 2.83), and the Second Edition NCS samples placed in front of

cauliflower (more blackness M = 1, SD = 2.11; and him/her. An incandescent lamp fitted in the ceiling

more colorfulness M = 0.90, SD = 2.32) were minimal, (the observation geometry being 0°/45°) served as

as could be expected. The difference in raw and cooked illumination and a middle grey cardboard (luminance

versions of chicken were quite varied (more blackness of 20 cd/sq.m) acted as an adapting field. In the first

M = 3, SD = 14.94; and more colorfulness M = 7.4, SD part of the experiment the subjects identified raw and

= 25.72), as can be seen by the standard deviation. The cooked food color prototypes that corresponded to

raw versus cooked difference for beef was greatest in

Food Color Memory and Names – A Linguistic Vantage

colorfulness (more blackness M = 17, SD = 13.17; and colorfulness, for cooked chicken. The average and less colorfulness M = 31, SD = 28.94) 1 . In reading this

control for raw beef had a similar difference, but table, we may observe, for example: Spinach was

moved in opposite directions, the average was seen as considered more black and less colorful when cooked;

less black and more colorful. Cooked beef average peas were considered the same in blackness and more

values were similar, though again in opposite colorful when cooked; leeks and cauliflower were

directions, the average was less colorful and more considered more black and more colorful when cooked;

black than the control.

chicken was considered more black and more colorful Although there was a large range of specific NCS when cooked; and last beef was considered more black

color sample choices, each person made little variation and less colorful when cooked.

between the raw and cooked version, 30% of the cases

The graphs compare the average memory used the same NCS color code for the food in both stages assessment per food in raw vs. cooked colorfulness

and 20% of the cases used the same BCT for both food and blackness (Figs. 1 a and b) and blackness vs.

stages. The author would argue that this is due to the colorfulness in raw and cooked foods (Figs. 2 a and b).

memory color that individuals use as a linguistic vantage, In Fig. 1, we see that the controls were more colorful

or point of reference. This is defined as a “cognitive and less black for raw and cooked spinach than the

color” [5-6]. Derefeldt et al. [5] in writing about their average. The controls were more colorful than and

experiments observed a similar type of reaction, similar in blackness for raw and cooked peas on the

although their subjects “saw” the original stimulus average. The controls and averages were quite similar

shortly before having to remember it and identify it. in colorfulness and blackness for raw and cooked

In the visual experiments, the “original” color leeks and cauliflower. The raw and cooked controls

stimulus and the selected “actual” color stimulus and averages were quite similar for chicken, with the

are significantly and systematically different exception of the cooked control which was less

(memory color shift). The memory color shift is colorful and the raw control was more black. The beef

usually directed towards a basic color or a color raw and cooked average colorfulness ranged across

prototype (in other words: a long-term memory the control, but the blackness values were quite

color of a familiar object) which was similar to the similar, though the difference between raw and

“original color”. The reason is that the observer cooked was inverted. In Fig. 2 the control blackness

tends to categorize the original color and to and colorfulness for raw spinach ranged over the

remember only that category, i.e., to remember a averages which were quite similar, and the cooked

cognitive color [5] (author’s italics). results were quite different. The control blackness

This experiment confirms Derefeldt’s research. The was the same and different in colorfulness for raw and

subjects said that they felt as if they needed to make a cooked peas. The control and average blackness and

difference in the two stages of the food process, yet colorfulness for raw and cooked leeks and cauliflower

even though uneasy, opted for the only cognitively were quite similar. The average and control blackness

economical category names. They used the semantic for raw chicken had a wider spread than for

category “cognitive color” that resulted in their set of colorfulness, and the opposite, a wider spread for

long-term memory color prototypes, rather than a complete utterance in explanation of the color. The

The standard deviation of these raw and cooked food color second part of the experiment found that the group means may be considered a normal distribution, i.e., in a

showed a robust agreement on the basic cognitive color normal distribution, about 68% of the scores are within one standard deviation of the mean and about 95% of the scores are

used to describe the food.

within two standard deviations of the mean.

Food Color Memory and Names – A Linguistic Vantage

Fig. 1 Raw and cooked colorfulness and blackness of each food compared with the control item, a: colorfulness; b: blackness. Raw is indicated with an up or down triangle shape and cooked with a circle or a square. The average is in down triangle and circle and the control in up triangle and square.

Fig. 2 Raw and Cooked blackness and colorfulness of each food compared with the control item, a: Raw, b: Cooked. The average is in a lighter color and the control in a darker color.

Table 1 The mean values and standard deviation for each food according to the state (raw or cooked) and to blackness and colorfulness.

Blackness

Colorfulness

Food Mean St. Dev. Mean St. Dev.

Raw 23.0 7.5 5.0 17.5 Peas Cooked 23.0 4.6

Fig. 3 Pie diagram of the percentages of color name types

Raw 6.0 given to the 120 items of six foods in two different stages. 2.0 3.6 1.8 Cauliflower

Cooked 7.0 2.4

3.2 Color Name Identification

Raw 12.5 6.4 22.5 17.6 Chicken Cooked 15.5 11.3

The group agreed that spinach and peas are green, Raw 22.5

10.8 59.0 22.4 leeks and cauliflower are white, chicken is some form Beef Cooked 39.5 14.9 28.0 15.4 of pink raw and white cooked, whereas beef is red raw

Food Color Memory and Names – A Linguistic Vantage

and brown cooked. This is fitting with the folk-theory, -ish (e.g., white grey or greenish white). The remaining or with the cognitive linguistic constraint of “the nature

cases were 13% subordinate color terms (e.g. pea of reality” combined with “convention”, imagined

green , beige), and 12% utterances like, cooked spinach “context” and human “cognitive constraints” of color

green , turtle dove grey brown, or a darker green not vision and memory. Duly we have green and white

like spinach .

vegetables, red and white meats. It became clear how Table 3 lists the BCT on the left hand column and the individuals’ use of the cognitive color brought

proceeds across the table to list the variations in the together the group idea of the specific food color, see

color term, moving from a mono-lexeme, to a Table 2. For example the six color term variations of

mono-lexeme modified with dark, then with light or green for raw spinach that the ten subjects gave were:

bright , and then with the -ish suffix. After that there is a green, dark green, bright green, light green, column listing the usage of a subordinate term with a yellowish-green, spinach green ; and there were only

BCT included, and then a compound term or a three versions of green for cooked spinach: green, dark

complete utterance, and the totals per color. The author green, cooked spinach green . The largest variation in

expected the subjects to use more descriptive color terms was for raw beef: red, pinkish red, reddish

utterances after having identified the nuance of the raw pink, bright red, dark red, dark brick red, beige, raw

and cooked versions of the six food types. A total of 68 meat, and for cooked beef: brown, brownish, light

different color terms were used for 120 items - 10 brown, brownish pink, reddish brown, greyish, turtle

subjects named 6 foods in 2 phases: raw and cooked. dove - gray brown . The meats were remembered as

This means 56% of the assessments were different different colors when raw or cooked, the same term for

color names, even though in theory there were only 12 both states was not used by anyone. We may evince

categories of different items (i.e., raw and cooked that though these color terms vary, the subjects had a

foods). However, 75% of the items used a BCT, a BCT clear idea in their mind of what they wanted to identify,

and modifier, or were described using at least one form possibly some imagined different contexts and

Table 2 The number of “color names” for each food state different parts of the food, these aspects of (e.g., spinach Raw - 6, means that 6 different names were

contexualization were purposely not specified, in that

used to describe raw spinach), and the number and percent

the author did not want to suggest a specific tone or

of same names for both states per food.

color, but see if the basic cognitive color would emerge.

No.

Number and % of

Stage of

color term The only specification was to think of the food without same names

Food

cooking

for both states condiments.

variations

Raw 6

As illustrated in the Fig. 3, out of 120 items

identified the cognitive color was represented by a

Raw 4

BCT in some form in 75% of the cases. This can be

broken down into 35% of the items called with a single

Raw 3

primary BCT (e.g., green), another 20% called with a 2-20%

Leeks

Cooked 7

primary BCT and a modifier dark, light or bright (e.g.,

Raw 6

5-50% dark green ), and another 5% used a BCT plus the suffix

Cauliflower

Cooked 4

-ish (e.g., greenish). This means that a total of 65% of

Raw 6

- the cases used a primary or secondary BCT plus a

Chicken

Cooked 8

lexeme modifier. Another 15% of the items were

Raw 8

- identified with a BCT compound or compound with Cooked 7

Beef

Food Color Memory and Names – A Linguistic Vantage

of a basic color term. This is a robust result. Only two terms white (60% cooked chicken) and red (70% raw utterances did not contain any color term. See

beef) for the respective meat types did appear to be percentages in Fig. 3.

salient in some form.

A need to differentiate between the two states, raw

4. Conclusions

and cooked, seemed to trigger a needed morphemic addition to the BCT. A BCT (mono-lexeme) was used

In regard to the specific NCS color memory of a more for the raw state, for four out of six foods (not for

food state, it is interesting to ascertain that the group peas or cauliflower). In the case of peas, the raw state

assessment neared the control value more than the was quickly identified by pea green (which appears to

single individual assessments. Generally speaking

be a prototypical green), and in the case of cauliflower there seems to be an underlying conceptual metaphor it was called white in a majority of instances, both raw

influencing the idea of color memory, where cooking is and cooked. Talmy refers to a figure-ground alignment

felt as adding something and therefore having “more” mechanism that uses what is more recent in our

blackness and colorfulness. Only in two cases, cooked memory as the figure (the specific color object relation

spinach and beef, do we have less colorfulness. task, or working memory) and what was earlier on the

The author would argue that the concept of a scene as the ground (the basic color, long term memory)

“cognitive color” reference may be carried over to the [7]. The figure-ground mechanism allows us to

idea of a “cognitive group color” ecology. Any group recalculate through a vantage operation [8] the color

will have numerous individual cognitive processing name requested. The name used to communicate a

differences that will help analyze the task at hand, or desired signification is accessed through the judgement

keep tract of different specific aspects, but putting all of of similarity and difference with a point of reference, in

those individual elaborations together the group comes this case the food color vantage represents the

to what may be called cognitive group ecology. This cognitive color remembered.

ecological social mechanism brings the group to make In this experiment the foods were called most in the

a more accurate assessment as a whole. The average following ways: raw spinach green, and cooked

result of the subjects nears the control values in most spinach dark green; raw peas pea green and cooked

cases, showing what we may call a cognitive group peas green; both raw and cooked leeks and cauliflower 3 ecology . This means that although each individual

were identified as white in most cases; raw chicken assessment varied from the control, the group average pink and cooked chicken beige, or almost white; raw

was closer to the control value. A group working beef red and cooked beef brown. This is in keeping

together comes to a more accurate assessment, where with Hutchings food color indications: cauliflower

each individual may process the food memory white , leeks white, peas green; and the relation between

in slightly a different way reaching a less singularly doneness and brownness [9]. Furthermore, pea green

has been found as a color term since 1752. This may Behavioral ecology, along with other areas of evolutionary explain why the term is salient (60% raw peas), though

biology, involves a series of assessment techniques, some of which have been borrowed from optimization theory.

sage green , used since 1596, was named only once for Optimization is a concept that stipulates strategies that offer the cooked peas. Spinach green has been used as a color highest return to an animal given all the different factors and constraints facing the animal. In this case the highest return is a term since the beginning of the 1900’s, but was named

correct assessment that evolves from a richness in a variety of for only 10% of both the raw and cooked state. The members in a group, each of whom uses a selective memory that emphasizes a different aspect, in the end this variation gives the group the advantage of coming to an average

evaluation that nears the control. The group decision is a more The years relative to when the food color names were

correct assessment on the whole, than each individual introduced are from Hutchings [9].

assessment.

Food Color Memory and Names – A Linguistic Vantage

Table 3 The specific type of color term used, starting from the BCT and then describing what type of modification the BCT went through to describe the 120 different items.

BCT Mono-lexeme Dark + Light (bright) +

Utterance with example white

BCT or (BCT + -ish) Type of BCT -ish or BCT + BCT Compound

Compound 1st- BCT

BCT Total times dark red light green

2nd- x + BCT color term

pea green

reddish pink or

brownish red dark brick red color term

or greenish

white grey

White 22 1 2 3 3 9 5 45 Green 12

2 1 1 8 Grey x

precise assessment. classification task”? This experiment confirmed the Evidence shows that we humans memorize color

theory that people use a cognitive color to refer to color through the categorization of our visual experiences.

in memory, and that generally this term will be a BCT We establish a color prototype, or exemplar, in keeping

or some form of it. The technical task seemed to have with our direct primary experiences. We keep a

influenced the perceived need to differentiate between constant color in mind that is used as our reference

the foods and the raw vs. cooked stage, and to have point. The color remembered is independent of

stimulated slight differentiations in the terms used by illumination, though it is related to the visual context

the subjects. Nonetheless this experiment confirms the and experience of the color surround combination. This

tendency to use a BCT as a “cognitive” linguistic color does not reflect the specific color, but the

vantage.

cognitive color that tends towards a BCT. The color

References

could be considered a macro-color, and it is hence more likely to be a basic color term, rather than a subordinate

[1] W. Croft, D.A. Cruse, Cognitive Linguistics, Cambridge term. Basic categories are used to economize cognitive University Press, Cambridge, 2004, pp. 101-103. [2] R. Gibbs, Embodiment and Cognitive Science,

effort. They are used to make linguistic reference in a Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2005.

way that allows for successful communication. The [3] V. Evans, A Glossary of Cognitive Linguistics, Edinburgh linguistic constraints of cognitive capacities, the nature

University Press, Edinburgh, 2007, p. 85. of reality, convention, and context bring about a basic

[4] L.R. Ronchi, J.L. Sandford, Traditional Vocabulary of group agreement. Cognitive functions of attention,

Italian Cuisine and of Its Color, Via San Felice a Ema 2050125 Firenze, Italia, 2010, pp. 37-38.

perception, cognition and memory converge and must [5] G. Derefeldt, T. Swartling, U. Berggrund, P. Bodrogi,

be studied as a whole in linguistic analysis, both on an Cognitive color, Color Res. Appl. 29 (1) (2004) 7-19.

individual and a collective basis. [6] J. Davidoff, Cognition through Color, MA, London, MIT To answer the initial questions posed: Do

Press, Cambridge, 1991.

individuals name a “cognitive color” with a BCT, as [7] L. Talmy, Toward a Cognitive Semantics, Vol. 1: Concept Derefeldt et al. suggest [5], with a secondary color term,

Structuring Systems, Mass., MIT Press, Cambridge, 2000, pp. 313-315.

or with a complete descriptive utterance, when asked to [8] R.E. MacLaury, Introducing vantage theory, Language name the color of a cooked or raw food that they have

Sciences 24 (2002) 493-536.

just identified with the NCS color samples? Will the [9] J. Hutchings, Food Colour and Appearance, Aspen, “technical perceptual task” influence the “semantic

London, 1994, pp. 23, 135, 486.

Journal of Life Sciences 5 (2011) 661-669

Analytical Study of Ground Painting Layers and

Conservation Processes of an Egyptian Painted Coffin

1 Hala Afifi Mahmood 2 and Mostafa Ahmed AbdEl Fatah 1. Conservation and Restoration Department, Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University, Giza, Cairo 12613, Egypt

2. Supreme Council of Antiquities, Cairo 12613, Egypt

Received: May 02, 2011 / Accepted: June 29, 2011 / Published: August 30, 2011.

Abstract: The aim of this study is to examine and present the results of the scientific examinations carried out on the ground layers with paint samples collected from the decorated surfaces of the wooden coffin dated back to the late period from Saqqara excavation that belonged to the Ministry of Antiquities. Many analytical methods were performed as optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (ESEM-EDX), X-ray diffraction analysis as well as fourier transform infrared spectroscopy have been used to both characterise the inorganic composition and the binding media used. The analytical results showed that the materials composition and technique used to plaster applied on the wooden surface are in good agreement with the information gathered through the historical survey. The coffin was in bad and poor condition. There was cracking on the surface and in the structure, serious flaking, cupping of some pigments and serious damage in both the wooden support and gesso layer. Conservation treatment processes carried out included consolidation of lifting areas of the paint film, disturbing restoration materials, repair of cracks in the wooden support and a dry surface cleaning of the pigments.

Key words: Wooden coffin, pigments, Saqqara, EDX, SEM, conservation, chemical composition, deterioration aspect.

1. Introduction purpose of the earthly life. The Egyptian has devoted so much attention, energy, and efforts to maintaining in its

Wood has played a major role throughout human texts and art the optimistic vision of eternal life. For history. In ancient Egypt religion played an important this reason the graves have been laid out very carefully. role in daily life. The Egyptians believed that only a The most important items for the afterlife can be found body that was preserved could fulfil the prerequisite of in nearly every grave: a sarcophagus, ushabties, living forever. This belief came from religious scarabs, jewellery, as well as painted coffins. Antique observations that the dry sand of the desert acted to coffins have special significance. Their designs and preserve buried bodies. Such beliefs were extant as structure reflect the chronology of historic periods, the early as the Neolithic and Predynastic periods of social level of the owner and religious beliefs. The 5,000-4,000 B.C. [1]. An example of the importance of structure and design of the coffins varied during the the preservation of the body is seen in the invocation different historic periods; for example some were long from The Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: ‘My and rectangular, others were anthropodial. Moreover, body is everlasting, it will not perish and it will not the type of wood that used was different in the different decay for ages’ [2, 3]. For a religious Egyptian, the periods. Royal and noble coffins were made of fine preparation for death and life after death was the main imported wood, but coffins of middle class or poor

people were made of local wood, which was of lesser Corresponding author: Hala Afifi Mahmood, Ph.D., associate professor, research fields: conservation and

quality and properties. A wooden painted coffin (No. restoration of monuments and culture heritage. E-mail:

729) was excavated from Titi cemetery, Saqqara halaafifi11@hotmail.com.

Analytical Study of Ground Painting Layers and Conservation Processes

of an Egyptian Painted Coffin

excavation. This excavation belonged to the Supreme there are also dirt, dust, and fiber particles covered Council of Antiquities. The coffin is consisting of

most of the pigment surface and serious damage in both several pieces; lid and box [4]. The lid is decorated

the gesso layer and black pigment. The extent of with brown, yellow and black colours. The lid was

damage ranged from bad to the serious damage. The varnished. No decoration is visible on the interior of the

painting layer was loosed, with loosed lifting flakes. lid. The face is pleasant. The hands were separately

The lid is in need of conservation with areas of missing carved and pegged in. The outside of the coffin box is

gesso at the head, and cracks on the sides. decorated with colored scenes of the deceased. No

2. Materials and Methods

decoration is visible on the interior of the lid. The name of the owner of the coffin has not yet been identified. It

2.1 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD) was buried in depth of 6 m, in the ground. It dates back

The analysis and investigation of inorganic pigments to the late period. It was found in collapsed state due to and ground painting layer were performed using the

the external pressures exerted by huge amounts of sand following methods: X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD)

and dust above it. The coffin is fine and executed in a [5, 6] with Phillips X-ray diffraction equipment model

perfect artistic state. The drawings and colors are clear and skilful. The wooden coffin was covered with a

pw/1840 with Ni filter, Cu radiation 1.54056 Å at 40 coarsely prepared ground layer, then a fine ground

KV, 25 mA, 0.05 /sec. Subsequently the ICDD painting layer. The actual painted layer consists of

(Powder Diffraction File, 1996) data bank of standard pigments and binding media. The coffin is about 191

X-ray powder diffraction patterns was used for phase cm in length and 26 cm in width. The general condition

identification [7].

of the painted wooden coffin was poor (Fig. 1). It was

2.2 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope in a collapsed state, and its sides broken off. The lid

(ESEM) Equipped with Energy Dispersive X-Ray was split, wrapped and broken which was seriously

Analysis (EDX)

deteriorated in many pieces (Fig. 1A). There was cracking on the surface and structure, loss in the Coarse

An energy dispersive x-ray analysis was used to ground painting layer and ground painting layer with

study the elements qualitatively and quantitatively by pigments, serious flaking as shown in Fig. 1B. The

environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) black pigment appeared to be fairly well bound to itself

unit Model Phillips XL30 with accelerating Voltage but was detached completely from the substrate. In Fig. 1C,

25 kV [8, 10]. Scanning electron microscope (ESEM)

Fig. 1 Different deterioration aspects in the destroyed painted coffin. A: collapsed state of the wooden coffin; B: loss in both coarse ground painting layer and ground painting layer with pigments; C: serious damage in both the gesso layer and black pigment.

Analytical Study of Ground Painting Layers and Conservation Processes

of an Egyptian Painted Coffin

studies was carried out by using ESEM Model Phillips major components while quartz SiO 2 detected as minor, XL30 with accelerating Voltage 25 kV, X 420 and

in addition dolomite Ca Mg (CO 3 ) 2 and halite NaCl as resolution for 50 µm in the Laboratory of Scanning

traces.

Electron Microscopy and Microanalysis at the Nuclear In Figs. 2B, 2C and 2D, there are many pigments on Materials Authority, Cairo, Egypt.

the ground painting layer which are brown, yellow and black pigments and the pigments were examined. In

2.3 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectrometry (FTIR) the pattern of the brown pigment, Fig. 2B showed that

Infrared spectroscopy is one of the most widely used gypsum, calcite and quartz are major components, techniques in the field of art and art conservation [11].

dolomite, halite and traces of hematite that was used as Its versatility and ability for providing structural

brown pigment were found in trace amounts. This information of both inorganic and organic materials,

result agrees with what is known about the pigments together with the minimum requirement of sample

used by Egyptian craftsmen in the Late Period [17]. preparation, are some aspects that justify the

The principal red pigments in Egypt are of two main importance of this analytical approach in the field of art

types, red iron oxide (hematite) and red ochre and art conservation. One of the first scientists to use

(hydrated iron oxide, perhaps partially dehydrated IR spectroscopy for the characterisation of the organic

goethite [18]. Fig. 2C revealed the presence of goethite materials present in paintings was Feller [17]. After

as yellow pigmented material agreed with Ref. [19] that, an increasing number of studies were reported in

beside the gypsum, calcite, quartz, halite and dolomite the technical literature, and focused on the use of IR

as ground painting layer. XRD pattern of black spectroscopy for the identification and determination

pigment as shown in Fig. 2D, carbon is detected as of the organic materials present in artworks, as

black pigment, besides the other components as described in some reviews on the application of this

gypsum, calcite, quartz, halite and dolomite. analytical technique in art and art conservation [13, 15].

3.1.2 Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) was

(ESEM) Equipped with Energy Dispersive X-Ray performed using JASCO FT\IR-460 plus spectrometer,

Analysis (EDX)

in the transmission mode (400-4,000 cm -1

) to examine

Analytical results contribute to interpret and explain and identify ground painting layer Samples and media

the differences among physical properties of the of pigments used in coffin painting processes [16]. studied samples. Scanning electron microscopy

3. Results and Discussion

equipped with energy dispersive X-ray analyser (ESEM-EDX) examinations showed the elemental

3.1 Analytical and Investigation Study composition of these samples and assured the results

3.1.1 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD) obtained with X ray diffraction analysis. The elements The results obtained in the analysis of the ground

found in the samples are shown in Fig. 3. The painting painting layers and pigments of wooden coffin showed

layer is applied in two layers and consists of gypsum that there are two ground layers applied. The ground

with calcite, quartz and inclusions of dolomite. layer and painting layer that consists of pigments

In the red pigment sample, EDX pattern (Fig. 3B) mixed with pigment media. The chemical composition

showed the elements that presented the highest of the ground layer was identified by X-ray diffraction

concentrations were S, Ca, Si, O, Al, Fe and Na. This analysis. XRD pattern (Fig. 2A) confirmed the

result indicates the red ochre pigment hematite

presence of gypsum CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O, calcite CaCO 3 as

(Fe 2 O 3 ) besides the painting layer that consists of gypsum

Analytical Study of Ground Painting Layers and Conservation Processes

of an Egyptian Painted Coffin

Fig. 2 XRD patterns of painting layer, brown, yellow, and black pigments. A: XRD pattern of ground layer confirmed the presence of gypsum, calcite as major components, quartz as minor, and traces of dolomite and halite; B: gypsum, calcite and quartz are major components, dolomite, halite and traces of hematite that was used as brown pigment; C: revealed the presence of goethite as yellow pigmented material besides gypsum, calcite, quartz, halite and dolomite as ground painting layer;

D: carbon is detected as black pigment, besides the other components as gypsum, calcite, quartz, halite and dolomite.

on some of the painting, under study it appears that this halite (NaCl). The use of red ochre in ancient Egypt

(CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O ), quartz (SiO 2 ), calcite (CaCO 3 ) and

is carbon black.

was reported in Refs. [17, 20, 22]. The majority of red pigments used in ancient Egypt The EDX analysis of black pigment (Fig. 3D)

were earthen based pigments containing iron oxide. showed that carbon presents the highest concentration

The mineral hematite ( αFe 2 O 3 ) was very common. It beside the other elements as Cl, Ca, Na, Mg and Si, due

could be applied on wood, stone as usual in some to the ground layer consists of gypsum, calcite, quartz

other cultures even for skin-paintings [6, 9]. These and halite. The high Ca, S and O concentrations are due

Fe-based colors are longer lasting and more light fast to the ground painting layer matrix, and exhibits Si, C,

than others, and are sometimes of astonishing in addition small amounts of Al, Mg, and what may be

brilliance [23].

interpreted as gypsum, calcite and quartz. From the

3.1.3 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectrometry observations and analysis of a black pigment remaining

(FTIR)

Analytical Study of Ground Painting Layers and Conservation Processes

of an Egyptian Painted Coffin

Fig. 3 A, B, C, D: EDX patterns and ESEM micrographs of painting layer, brown, yellow, and black pigments.

In all samples, a similar spectrum pattern of FTIR Special techniques have been carried out with great analysis of the examined pigments: brown, yellow and

accuracy in order to conserve the destroyed coffin. black were detected. Pigment samples gave the same

Different procedures for treating and preserving the virtually identical results, indicates the presence of a

coffin were employed as soon as it was transported to proteinaceous binder animal glue that widespeared use

the restoration and conservation lab (Fig. 5). Treatment as paint medium. Bands with a high definition can be

sometimes includes leaving the object as is; removing seen at micro FT-IR spectrum of the sample (Fig. 4).

old fills and hardware; or replacing old nails and Animal glue characterised by the presence of C=O

screws with less invasive materials. Fills can be

(1,656 cm -1 and N-H 1,549 cm ). The presence of amid replaced with more stable, conservation-quality was confirmed by the N-H stretching band at 3,283

materials (i.e., microcrystalline waxes, bulked epoxies, cm -1 and also bands corresponding to the stretching

vinyl spackling compounds) [27]. Stabilising the frequencies of sulphate (1,143, 1,116, 670 cm -1 ) which

cracking, lifting painted plaster by setting it down and

securing it in place with a dilute adhesive and 25]. Animal glue has been mainly identified as a binder

indicative of the presence of gypsum CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O [24,

reassembling coffin pieces were the main problems in on Egyptian artifacts made of wood or on fabric

the restoration and conservation of the coffin. paintings [26].

3.2.1 Surfaces Cleaning The first stage in the conservation of the coffin

3.2 Treatment and Conservation Work was the removal of dirt and debris as remains from the

Analytical Study of Ground Painting Layers and Conservation Processes

of an Egyptian Painted Coffin

Fig. 4 FTIR pattern of coffin pigments confirmed that animal glue is the medium used in pigments processes.

Fig. 5 During treatment and conservation processes of the coffin. A: yellow and black pigments during cleaning processes; B: during reassembling of coffin face; C: reassembling in pieces of the lid; D: coffin after cleaning and mechanical consolidation of wood pieces was performed using the joints and cotters fastenings.

burial (Fig. 6). Surface dirt and fibers were removed mechanically with tweezers, the touch of a small, soft, damp sable brush and a vacuum cleaner. Both solvents alone or distilled water can change the color of some pigments as brown ochre that darkened by distilled water cleaning, while ethanol on ultramarine caused lightening of the surface [10]. Then the water-sensitive surfaces, especially in the painted areas, were cleaned

with water and ethyl alcohol (1:5). Other surfaces were Fig. 6 Coffin under burial remains and debris.

cleaned with water and detergent which eliminates the consolidation was the primary treatment procedure. accumulated dust and fly specks (Fig. 7). The plaster

Knowing that the binder in the paint was animal glue, which had detached from its original location was kept

chemical consolidation was applied by a for fixing. Special care had to be taken on fragile

cellulose-based adhesive which would not adversely painted areas [11].

affect. It was chosen to stabilise the flaking paint

3.2.2 Chemical Consolidation as raised yellow and black flakes. First the lifting Due to the fragility of the decorative painted layer,

paint was softened a little bit with a solvent and then

Analytical Study of Ground Painting Layers and Conservation Processes

of an Egyptian Painted Coffin

Fig. 7 During pigments cleaning processes of the wooden coffin.

Fig. 8 During the coffin reassembled.

the adhesive was fed into the cracks with a fine in order to match the original colors of the coffin [28]. paintbrush. The tricky part came next as the flakes had

3.2.4 Reconstruction (Reassembled for Storage to be carefully manipulated to re-attach them to the

Exhibition)

underlying surface without breaking them. If necessary, The coffin eventually was reassembled for storage this was followed with the application of gentle

exhibition in its original position. The loss areas on the pressure to hold them in place until the adhesive set.

back side were filled in order to restore structural stability.

3.2.3 Mechanical Consolidation This problem is to be addressed by the conservation The mechanical consolidation of wood pieces was

treatment was the loss of the painted plasters. In many performed using the joints and fastenings as cotters were

places, the broken edges around the losses were systematically checked, and were reinforced if necessary.

vulnerable to further damage. An effective way to prevent Missing wood portions which are a result of an old

this from happening, however, is to fill the losses. insect infestation in the foot area of the coffin were

Mixed glass microballoons and cellulose powder replaced with Balsa wood and gap fillers were added to

into a cellulose ether adhesive were used (Klucel G) to replace the exterior parts which did not need much

create a lightweight, easy-to-shape mixture. Before strengthening. Gap fillers and balsa wood were colored

adding the cellulose powder it was “toasted”, or heated

Analytical Study of Ground Painting Layers and Conservation Processes

of an Egyptian Painted Coffin

to impart a cream, brown color and introduce chromatic painting materials for ancient painters, either used pure variation. The fill was shaped and smoothed with a

to produce yellow hues, or in mixtures with other small spatula, swabs and fine sand paper [28, 29].

colored pigments [30]. With regard to yellow ochre, red The advantage of these materials is that they create

ochre is considered one of the commonest pigments of extremely light fills, which are not too heavy for the

the ancient world. It has been identified in most of the aged wood. Both of these fills were also held together

paintings, as well as in colored plasters in the interior with the same type of cellulose adhesive that was used to

walls of the monumental tombs [31]. The black pigment stabilise the painted plaster, making them compatible

identified is carbon black, possibly deriving from with the original materials used in the construction of the

charcoal. Carbon black is the principal black attested in coffin. Once the losses were filled, they were painted to

paintings and its use is very frequent both as a match the background color surrounding them so that

homogeneous paint layer and mixed with other they are less obvious to the viewer. After treating the

pigments to produce darker tones. Different procedures for treating and preserving the coffin were carried out

polychrome wooden coffin a storage mount was with great accuracy as soon as it was transported to the

prepared to support it and to facilitate safe handling. The

restoration and conservation lab.

storage mount is made out of polyethylene foam and Tyvek, a smooth non-woven olefin fabric.

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pigment media. The chemical composition of the ground Nomikos and The Thera Foundation, Athens, 2000, pp.

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103-118.

dispersive X-ray analyses confirmed the presence of [7] Powder Diffraction File, Commitee on Powder Diffraction

Standard (JCPDS), International Centre for Diffraction components while quartz SiO Data (ICDD), Newtown Square, PA, USA, 1996.

gypsum CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O, calcite CaCO 3 as major

2 detected as minor, in

[8] J. Mazurek, M. Schilling, G. Chiari, A. Heginbotham,

addition dolomite Ca Mg (CO 3 ) 2 and halite NaCl as

Antibody assay to characterize binding media in paint, in: traces. Brown pigment is hematite, yellow pigment is

J. Bridgland (Ed.), ICOM Committee for Conservation, goethite. Yellow iron oxides represent indispensable

15th Triennal Conference, New Delhi, 2008, pp. 849-856.

Analytical Study of Ground Painting Layers and Conservation Processes

of an Egyptian Painted Coffin

[9] A. Heginbotham, V. Millay, M. Quick, The use of

D.A. Scott, L.S. Dodd, J. Furihata, S. Tanimoto, J. Keeney, immunofluorescence microscopy (IFM) and

M.R. Schilling, et al., An ancient Egyptian cartonnage enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) as

broad collar: Technical examination of pigments and binding complementary techniques for protein identification in

media, Studies in Conservation 49 (2004) 177-192. artist’s materials, in AIC Annual Meeting, Portland,

V. Perdikatsis, H. Brecoulaki, The use of red and yellow Oregon, USA, June 9-14, 2004, Wooden Artifacts Group

ochres as painting materials in ancient macedonia, in: (WAG) Postprints, 2004.

Third International Symposium on Archaeometry, Athens, [10]

G. Hodgins, R. Hedges, Toward the immunological

May 2003.

detection of media: The detection of artificially aged [25] A.R. David, H.G.M. Edwards, D.W. Farwell, D.L.A. de collagen-based paints, in: Art et Chimie, La Couleur:

Faria, Raman spectroscopic analysis of ancient egyptian Actes Du Congre`S/Sous La Direction De Jacques Goupy

pigments, Archaeometry 43 (2001) 461-473. Et Jean-Pierre Mohen, CNRS, Paris, 2000, pp. 75-79.

[26] A.M.B. Olsson, T. Calligaro, S. Colinart, J.C. Dran, N.E.G. [11] R.M. Derrrik, D. Stulik, M.J. Landy, Infra Red

Löovenstam., B. Moignart, et al., Micro-PIXE analysis of Spectroscopy in Conservation Science, The Getty

an ancient Egyptian papyrus: Identification of pigments Conservation Institute, Los Angeles, 1999, p. 108.

used for the “Book of the Dead”, Nucl. Instr. Meth. B 1 [12] M. Uda, S. Sassa, S. Yoshimura, J. Kondo, M. Nakamura,

Y. Ban, et al., Yellow, red and blue pigments from ancient [27] H.G.M. Edwards, S.E.J. Villar, A.R. David, D.L.A. de Egyptian palace painted walls, NIM B 161-163 (2000)

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Brown (Eds.), Conservation of Ancient Egyptian paintings, PACT 13, in: R. van Schoute, H.

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Journal of Life Sciences 5 (2011) 670-675

An Investigation of Environmental Education Knowledge for Sustainable Development in High School Sectors in UK

1 1 Mayowa Akinyele Abolaji 2 , Olusegun Adekunle Oke and Adekunle Adebanjo 1. Department of Integrated Science, Osun-State College of Education, PMB 5089 IIesa, Nigeria

2. Department of Education Technology, Ogun-State University, PMB 2002 Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria

Received: September 08, 2010 / Accepted: November 15, 2010 / Published: August 30, 2011.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate student’s awareness, knowledge and understanding of environmental issues for sustainable development. Findings revealed that: despite the positive attitude shown by students towards environmental education, a relatively low level of understanding of environmental concept was recorded in school settings regardless of efforts by government and other environmental agencies at creating awareness about environmental related issues. This brought about the investigation of students’ environmental education knowledge in high school settings. About 205 students were randomly selected for data collection using validated instruments titled student’s knowledge and attitude questionnaire as well as student’s response to questions (interview) concerning global warming. T-test statistics, chi-square and simple percentage were the major statistical tools employed in data analysis. This study revealed that environment based-education (school curriculum) as well as efforts by government/environmental agencies (mass media) plays a major role in promoting students’ understanding, of environmental concepts, awareness of major environmental issues and positive attitude towards natural environment.

Key words: Environmental education, environmental issues, awareness, sustainable development.

number of seminars and conferences at national and

1. Introduction

international level to create a global awareness of the There is an increasingly growing concern in the last

current campaign for the propagation of environmental two decades about the state of the environment, its

protection and conservation for sustainable relationship with development and lack of care for the

development. Among the seminars and conferences environment. This has devastated the quality of life of

organised specifically to address this issue of living organisms, which eventually led to the environment and sustainable development are the worldwide environmental crisis in the last decade. This

United Nations Conferences on environmental issues, is heightened by failure to employ effective means of

popularly known as the Earth summit, which was held creating and developing environmental awareness and

in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992 and the recent world positive attitude towards the natural environment. Also,

conference on global warming held at Istanbul there has been growing international concern about

Turkey in July 2009, the climate change conference issues such as how the earth’s resources are being

held at Copenhagen in December 2009 as well as other depleted and the consequences of global warming on

international campaign to reduce the amount of various the increasing growth in the world’s population.

gases to the atmosphere.

These environmental problems have brought about a For example the 350 movement is an international campaign to support a solution to the climate crisis:

Corresponding author: Mayowa Akinyele Abolaji, doctoral reducing the level of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere candidate, lecturer, research fields: science education and

to 350 parts per million (ppm). In contrary to environmental education. E-mail: abolajiakin2002@yahoo.co.uk.

An Investigation of Environmental Education Knowledge for

Sustainable Development in High School Sectors in UK

discussions of global warming and temperatures, this affecting High School students to address the problem. campaign focus more on the irresponsible biological

D. Uzzell [4] and J. Pooley et al. [5] have criticized

conventional education for adopting a narrow incalculable consequences. More scientists agree that

experiment to let the amount of CO 2 increase with

knowledge-oriented and context in which 350 ppm is the sustainable limit of which the Earth can

environmental problems are created. This was stay relatively unaffected of human climate change.

emphasised by D. Uzzell [6] who demonstrated how

such education has limited, and sometimes demand of decrease of carbon dioxide in the

Today the amount of CO 2 is 387 ppm, so 350 ppm is a

counter-productive by means of a longitudinal atmosphere from the present level. Even supporters of

evaluation that measures changes in belief over time. the campaign admit that the World will hardly be able

However, the goal of Investigating Environmental to stop the increase before reaching a level of close to

Education Knowledge for Sustainable Development in 400 ppm but especially for this reason find it important

High School Sectors is also fundamental to to keep focus on the decrease to 350 already now.

environmental educators’ efforts to create an This global warming is recognised worldwide as a

environmentally literate citizenry. In the face of serious threat to natural environment (ecosystem) as

complex environmental issues, environmental well as human existence [1], caused mainly by the

education does not advocate a particular solution or combustion of fossil fuels such coal, oil and natural gas

action, but instead facilitates a student’s ability to draw for human power, heat, light etc. This brought about

on and synthesize knowledge and skills from a variety large scale environmental problem like greenhouse

of subject areas to conduct inquiries, solve problems, gases which are the main causal agent of global

and make decisions that leads to informed and warming. However, at the 1992 Earth summit in Rio a

responsible actions [7].

major document emanated called Agenda 21 which Olagunju [8] described Environmental Education as emphasized the central role of education in helping

a process of acquiring or imparting knowledge skills young people to understand environmental and attitudes about, from and for the environment, for issues/problems and to equip them with the skills and

the sustainable use of natural and man-made resources. attitudes needed to take action to alleviate them. Those

It is pertinent to note that EE thrives to improve all working in the education sectors were therefore

ecological relationships including those between charged with providing frameworks through which

humanity and nature and between people. It must also these aims could be achieved.

be seen as a life long process hence there is need to Hungerford and Volk [2] proposed a model of

incorporate it into the school curriculum thereby laying Environmental Education for citizenship’ which begins

a better foundation for its future impact on our lives by raising students’ awareness of and sensitivity to the

and the society.

environment and leads, over time, to the development Furthermore, Environmental Education should of awareness of strategies for environmental action to

prepare the individual for life through an understanding promote sustainability. Here, the ‘environment’ was

of the major problems of the contemporary world, and defined as encompassing the social, political, economic

the provision of skills and attributes needed to play a and ecological aspects of the world in which we live.

productive role towards improving life and protecting Although, educational programmes were agreed to

the environment with due regards given to ethical

be required to deal with global warming [3], but there

values [9].

has been little empirical research seeking to go beyond Environmental Education therefore brings about issues of understanding to address other factors

awareness and actions which will go a long way to

An Investigation of Environmental Education Knowledge for

Sustainable Development in High School Sectors in UK

minimize the problems of environmental degradation (3) Does the students’ environmental knowledge and enhancing people quality of life. It will, in addition,

affect their attitude towards the natural environment bring about citizens who understand interrelationships

and sustainable development?

between abiotic and biotic components of the (4) What is the Student’s belief about environmental environment and how their socio-cultural economic

issues?

activities can disrupt the natural order and cause

2. Materials and Methods

problems [10]. Noibi [11] said search for ways to preserve and

The research instruments for the study consist of protect the environment is incomplete without questionnaires developed by the researcher in respect environmental education. He emphasized that, the

of the knowledge, attitude and awareness of more knowledge the public (students inclusive) has

environmental education and sustainability among about the environment, the better their attitude towards

students.

the natural environment and sustainable development.

2.1 Subjects

Ghazanavi [12] emphasized that, environmental education fosters awareness, ecological knowledge,

Data were collected from the randomly selected attitude, values commitment, skills and environmental

students of B-six form College (between the age of responsibilities in individuals and nations for sound use

sixteen and seventeen) in London in May 2010. A total of the earth’s resources and for protecting and

of about 205 high school students were selected for the improvement of the earth for the present and future

study. Researchers approached the students and generation. Despite the growing trend of all the

solicited their participation, obtained verbal consent previous research on environmental education, most

before the verbal interview and after which the has focused on environmental responsibilities through

questionnaire was given to test their knowledge as well formal education and awareness programmes. There is

as their attitude towards their natural environment and little research on the impact of environmental the associated issues. Meanwhile, it’s a bit difficult to education knowledge on sustainable development.

get the students to accept to participate and therefore, Therefore, this paper sought to explore the impact of

some participated in the two sections while some were environmental education knowledge and awareness for

not available for the second section which is the sustainable development among high school students.

completion of questionnaire.

Also, it examines the effect of environmental education

2.2 Procedure

knowledge on student’s attitude towards the natural environment for sustainability. The following research

The interview lasted for about 15-20 minutes and it questions were raised to enable the researcher have an

covers the aspect of environmental issues as well as in-depth understanding of students knowledge of

student’s belief in regards to some environmental environmental issues/problems and how they could

issues. While, the questionnaire covers the areas of contribute to sustainable development.

student’s knowledge, attitude well as some environmental concept. Student has been allowed to

Research Questions: take their time in completing their questionnaire and

(1) What do the students understand by the word return it to the researcher before the school closing time. ‘environment’?

This is to enable the students read the questionnaire (2) What understanding do the students have of the

carefully, so that their decision can be original and at associated environmental issues and concepts?

their own discretion.

An Investigation of Environmental Education Knowledge for

Sustainable Development in High School Sectors in UK

3. Results and Discussion

value of 1.645 at 0.05 level of significant. Table 3 also showed that students show a positive attitude towards

3.1 Analysis environmental education which may be as a result of

Student’s responses to the interview as well as the their knowledge of recent environmental disasters questionnaires were collected and analyzed by using

around the world as well as Government effort at the statistical analysis as bellow:

creating awareness about our immediate environment. T-test statistical analysis was used to show the

Ranges of statistical test were carried out upon the significant differences among the sample used. Also a

data to examine differences between students’ belief descriptive statistical analysis (chi-squared) was used

about global warming this was based on their response to describe responses from the selected high school

and comparative sample. Descriptive statistics for students and comparative samples describing questions 4 above are given in Table 4. Cross-tabular responses to questions concerning environmental

statistics analysis, using the chi-squared method, issues like global warming.

revealed a significant difference between the two The result in Table 1 reveals a non significant

sample groups (chi-squred = 17.42 on 4 df, P = 0.002) outcome (t = 0.916, P > 0.05). This means the observed

concerning student’s belief of the earth’s climate difference in students’ understanding of the word

changing. From the table above, the first group “environment” is not significant. Hence there is no

(participants) is highe convinced that climate change significant difference in the level of understanding of

was occurring in comparison to the second group students in science class and student in art class in

(i.e. comparative sample). 41.3% of the first group was regards to the word “environment”. This may be as a

Table 1 T-test statistical analysis of students’

result of recent efforts at creating a global awareness

understanding of the word “environment”.

about environmental issues as well as the Government

N Mean SD DF T SIG policy on environmental problems.

Category

Science students 129 32.4 2.32 203 0.916 0.355 The result of Table 2 presents the summary of

Art students

205 student level of understanding of the associated

Total

N: number of items on test; Mean: mean scores; SD: standard environmental issues and concept. From Table 2,

deviation; DF: variation; T: level of significant; SIG: majority of the students is about 144 (70.1%) recorded

significant.

low level of understanding of environmental concept

Table 2 Frequency and percentage of students’ level of

score, while about 61 (29.9%) recorded high level of

understanding of the associated environmental issues and

understanding score. As a result it can be concluded

concept.

that majority of students have low level of Level Frequency Percentage % Low (25-39)

70.1 understanding of environmental concept. This may be

61 29.9 as a result of students lack of interest in environmental

High (40-60)

Total 205 100 related issues/problems. Therefore, effort should be

Table 3 Mean difference between student’s environmental

made by government and environmental agencies to

knowledge and their attitude towards natural environment increase awareness about environmental related in relation to sustainable development.

problems.

X SD DF t-calt -crit According to Table 3, there is no mean difference

Variables N

Knowledge 100 57.80 5.521 198 -0.62 1.645 between Students’ environmental knowledge and their

Attitude 100 60.22 2.16 5* 5*: significant at 0.05; N: number of items on test or number of

attitude towards their environment because t-test subjects that participated in the study; X/Mean: the mean

calculated value of -0.62 is lesser than t-test critical scores among variables; SD: standard deviation.

An Investigation of Environmental Education Knowledge for

Sustainable Development in High School Sectors in UK

Table 4 The descriptive statistical data for some selected high school students and comparative sample describing responses to questions concerning environmental issues (global warming).

- How convinced are you that earth’s weather patterns are changing? (Students Response (SR) and Comparative Sample (CS)) Not convinced

Total SR

Not very convinced

Fairly convinced

Very convinced

Don’t know

59 - How much contribution have you made to reduce the effect of global warming? Not at all

Total SR

Very little

A little

A lot

Don’t know

68 (10mis) CS

- Do you feel a sense of responsibility for energy conservation?

Yes No Undecided Total SR

- Do you feel a sense of responsibility for using renewable energy?

Yes No Undecided Total SR

‘very convinced’ that climate change is occurring, in towards environmental education which may be as a comparison to 11.9% of their peers. Meanwhile,

result of their knowledge of recent environmental subsequent questions presumed that this phenomenon

disasters around the world (e.g. Pakistan and China) as was occurring, participants who were ‘not at all

well as Government effort at creating awareness about convinced’ that the earth’s climate is changing, or who

our immediate environment. Further analysis revealed failed to answer this question, were excluded from

that levels of conviction about the reality of global further analysis.

warming were differently held by students from the two groups used in the sample.

3.2 Discussion

4. Conclusion

The results of this research suggest that both science and art students had proper understanding of the word

While this study may not be entirely conclusive, the environmental problems/issues. The reason for this

results are consistent with theoretical predictions in the may be connected to the world-wide environmental

previous studies on the efficacy of environmental awareness through the media as well as other

education-based knowledge in school settings. governmental agencies at creating awareness about

Collectively, this evidence can be used to raise environmental problems/issues that affect the awareness among the public and policy-maker of the environment. The data further suggest that majority of

valuable role the environmental education could play the students that participated in the study recorded low

in sustainable development.

level of understanding of environmental concept which

Acknowledgment

may be related to student’s lack of interest in issues related to their immediate environment.

he author acknowledges the support and Furthermore, students show a positive attitude

cooperation of Students of B-six form college (London)

An Investigation of Environmental Education Knowledge for

675

Sustainable Development in High School Sectors in UK

that participated in the study as well as the teachers [4] J. Pooley, M.O’ Connor, Environment and behaviour, Environmental Education & Attitude 32 (2000) 711-723.

who agreed to share their thoughts, questions and [5] D. Uzzell, Global environmental problem, Journal of

criticisms with me. The friendly manner of their Environmental Psychology 20 (2000) 307-318. participation was encouraging and helped a great deal

[6] UNESCO, Environmental education, Final Report of in completing this study.

Intergovernmental Conference, Ed/MD/49, Tbilisi, Paris, UNESCO, 1978.

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Journal of Life Sciences (ISSN 1934-7391)

Call for Paper

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The Journal of Life Sciences, a monthly professional academic journal, is striving to provide the best platform for researchers and scholars worldwide to exchange their latest findings and results.

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2. Manuscripts may be 3,000-8,000 words or longer if approved by the editor, including abstract, text, tables, footnotes, appendixes, and references. The title should not be exceeding 15 words, and abstract should not be exceeding 200 words. 3-8 keywords or key phrases are required.

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All papers considered appropriate for this journal are reviewed anonymously by at least two outside reviewers. The review process usually takes two to three weeks. Papers are accepted for publication subject to no substantive, stylistic editing. The Editor reserves the right to make any necessary changes in the papers, or request the author to do so, or reject the paper submitted. A copy of the edited paper along with the first proofs will be sent to the author for proofreading. They should be corrected and returned to the Editor within seven days. Once the final version of the paper has been accepted, authors are requested not to make further changes to the text.

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