Cortical Arousal Strategies in Left-Handers during the Aural Perception and Manual Playback of Mono- and Polyphonic Rhythmical Patterns
Cortical Arousal Strategies in Left-Handers during the Aural Perception and Manual Playback of Mono- and Polyphonic Rhythmical Patterns
Pavlovych Olga Sergiyivna, Morenko Alevtyna Grigorivna, Kotyk Olena Adamivna and Vlasjuk Svitlana Sergiyivna Lesia Ukrainka Volyn National University, Lutsk 0668262723, Ukraine
Received: March 27, 2012 / Accepted: June 22, 2012 / Published: December 30, 2012.
Abstract: The actual purpose of this study is to establish the cortical arousal strategies (according to the power of the EEG (electroencephalogram) α-oscillations) during the aural perception as well as manual playback of mono- and polyphonic rhythmical patterns in men with left profile. The study involved 35 men from 19 to 21 years old with the left profile of the manual and aural asymmetries. EEG was recorded in the functional status of rest: during the aural perception and playback of mono- and polyphonic rhythmical patterns with the left and right hand fingers. The monophony in the rhythmical pattern sounding relative to monophonic patterns is followed by more expressed and widespread cortical processes of the EEG α-oscillation depression. Given patterns indicate a greater intensity of ascending nonspecific arousal strategies of data processing by men on conditions of the sound and harmonious complications of the pattern structure. The aural perception and playback of rhythmical patterns with both hands were accompanied by the increased significance of arousal processes in the right hemisphere. This may be due to the dominant role of the hemisphere during the formation of the innervation impacts on the left-hander’s neuro-motor apparatus. More differentiated changes in the cerebral cortex were installed during the left hand activation.
Key words: Left-handers, mono- and polyphonic sounding, alpha rhythm, rhythmic sense.
1. Introduction current stimulus: a duration, rhythmic character, etc. The sense of movement assures the accurate
The sense of a rhythm as a natural human feeling presentation of the reality, speed and sequence of and one of the most complicated cognitive processes events [1, 3, 5, 7]. Recent electroencephalographic carried out by human mind is demonstrated in various studies are important in revealing the central forms of people’s activities. A rhythmic sense requires mechanisms of the sense of “rhythm”. Luriia [5],
a precision synchronization of several hierarchically Morenko, Pavlovuch [6], Boldyrieva, Gavoronkova organized movements and a careful control of [10] highlight specific cortical processes during the temporal parameters of the stimulation [1-9]. performance of the sensor-motor rhythmic tasks such Experimental findings [1, 3, 5, 6, 9, 10] indicate as activation changes in the projection and associated inextricable connection between auditory and motor areas according to the modality of sensory stimuli as systems in the process of the perception and well as the enhance of the synchronization between reproduction of rhythmic structures. The auditory sensory and motor areas. A significant interaction perception reflects the temporal characteristics of the between the frontoparietal areas as a criterion of the
establishment of the intercentral functional relation in Corresponding author: Pavlovych Olga Sergiyivna, M.Sc., research fields: physiology, psychophysiological investigation.
conditions of complications and the increased E-mail: pos-bio@mail.ru.
Cortical Arousal Strategies in Left-Handers during the Aural Perception
and Manual Playback of Mono- and Polyphonic Rhythmical Patterns
selective attention to it shown by Blum, Lutz and Jäncke [2], Morenko, Pavlovych [6, 11] and others. Palva [9] states that the stage of the processing sensory stimulus is accompanied by synchronized oscillations of the electrical activity of the cerebral cortex while motor responses to sensory stimuli are accompanied by processes of the arousal reaction. Methods of the positron emission tomography (PET) are used to visualize and specify a certain part of brain structures including motor and association cortex, basal ganglia and cerebellum in ensuring the synchronization of motor centers of the tempo-rhythmic auditory stimulation parameters [1, 3, 7]. Some researchers [5, 8] prove that human brain differently processes melodies and rhythms “in its pure form”. According to Lotze et al. [5], Bengtsson, Ullena [1], the processing of melodies increasingly activates the right hemisphere cortex and the cerebellum otherwise the left posterior temporal cortex, ventral frontal gyri, the caudate nucleus and the cerebellum are activated by the rhythm.
The sense of rhythm as sensorimotor process is largely determined by the “personal factor”, i.e., individual characteristics of sensory, motor areas and their physiological provision [1]. In this context it is interesting to investigate the specific activation processes in the cortex of individuals with different profile of sensory and motor asymmetry. The research results show that in interhemispheric provision of mental functions, there is a distinct type of asymmetric cerebral response in right-handers and, in left-handers, brain organization acquires ambilateral, diffuse, and at the same time less ordered character. The authors carried out a study of cortical arousal processes in men with a right profile [11]. According to the obtained results, their sense of rhythms is accompanied by local and differentiated arousal changes in the cerebral cortex. The higher prevalence of processes of the EEG α-rhythm depression was ascertained in the left hemisphere in case of the task performance with a right hand while with the left
hand—in the right hemisphere. The increasing complexity of pitch and harmony of rhythmic patterns (polyphonic sounding) is accompanied by the growing role of non-specific information processing strategies during the manual playback.
Despite the progress in this problem investigation, the elucidation of the features of integrated upstream and downstream information processes, correlation of local and generalized activation of men with different profile of functional asymmetry still remain relevant. The investigation of how the pitch and harmonic complexity of the structure of sensory stimuli impacts on the nature of the cortex electrogenesis is of particular interest. The context of this issue determined the purpose and objectives of this study: establishing cortical arousal strategies (according to the power of the EEG α-oscillations) during the aural perception as well as manual playback of mono- and polyphonic rhythmical patterns in men with left profile.
2. Methods
Thirty-five 19-21 years old men with a sinistral profile of the auditory and manual asymmetries participated in a study with the observance of biomedical ethics [2]. Testees had no music education or systematic practice of making music.
The electrical activities of the cerebral cortex recorded by means of the hardware and software complex “NeuroCom” (“KHAI-Medica”, state registration certificate No. 6038/2007 from Jan. 26, 2007) was considered as the indicator of data processes. Active electrodes were placed in nineteen points on the scalp under the international system of 10/20 while writing the EEG. 40 second intervals of EEG were registered. The spectrum of power
fluctuations ( μV 2 ) in the α-range (8-13 Hz) was calculated by means of the Fourier’s fast transformation for the EEG non-artifact periods. Results within a group of men were averaged both for each lead and test. During the test, the testees were in
a room isolated from light and sound, had their eyes
Cortical Arousal Strategies in Left-Handers during the Aural Perception and Manual Playback of Mono- and Polyphonic Rhythmical Patterns
closed and were in a stepped-lying position in a chair monophonic simple patterns by fingers of the left with a headrest. EEG was recorded in the functional
hand were provided with the reduction of the EEG status of rest (background) during the acoustic
α-oscillations in the right anterior temporal and central sensation and manual playback of sound stimuli (by
areas of the cerebral cortex as related to the tapping with the fingers of the left and right hands
background (P ≤ 0.05) (Table 1, Fig. 1: 1-2). organized in rhythmical patterns). Stimuli
Such a localization of changes corresponds to the (Finale-2006) were sent by means of four binaural
cortical projections of acoustic and motor reactions acoustic systems placed in different corners of the
provided simple automated sensori-motor activities [2, room at the distance of 1.2 m from both of the testee’s
12]. A wide capacity of the EEG α-oscillation ears. The stimulus duration was 140 ms; the output
decrease was occurred in the posterior frontal, volume from acoustic systems did not exceed 55-60
temporal, central, parietal and occipital areas of the dB (regulated by DE-3301 sound level meter No.
cortex of both hemispheres against the background (P 0507011882, state registration certificate No. ≤ 0.05) (Fig. 1: 1-3) during the performance of the 025-2009, valid until December 21, 2014).
task with the right hand fingers. According to data All patterns include single and twin stimuli and
pointed out in literary sources [1-3, 13] such dynamic reproduced by tests such as to this rhythmic
shifts became the criterion of the increasingly larger picture—“/ // // /”. Drumbeat sounds of the identical
role of non-specific ascending activation processes height were used as stimuli in the monophonic
(bottom-up) related to the processing of the sensory patterns. The polyphony in the pattern sounding was
stimuli, sensory-spatial imagination, implementation achieved by the complexity of their pitch levels and
and programming of the subjectively more complex harmonic structures. Piano melody sounds with
motor activity with a non-leading (right) hand. different pitch levels were superimposed onto the
However, the significance of detected changes was sounds of the drumbeat. Both sounds of drumming
higher in the right anterior temporal and central and and playing the piano were delivered by the
left parietal areas (P ≤ 0.001). Increased activation homophone rhythmic picture and created a processes in the right hemisphere in terms of the harmonious sound effect of instruments. Testees
activity carried out by both hands may be caused by received patterns of just one type from the refrain
the dominant role of this hemisphere in the formation and performed tasks with only one hand.
of innervation impacts on the peripheral neuro-motor Analyzing the results, the authors evaluated the
apparatus in left-handers. The performed task qualitative changes of dynamic processes occurring in
laterality changes were followed by the reduced the cerebral cortex.. Special attention was paid to
capacity of the EEG α-oscillations in the left temporal determining the level of significance (P ≤ 0.05 and P
and parietal lobe cortex during the activity carried out ≤ 0.001), a topographic location and prevalence of
with the right hand (P ≤ 0.05), in comparison with left cerebral differences. The statistics of changes in the
(Fig. 1: 2-3).
EEG α-power sub-ranges was determined under the During the aural perception and playback of averaged data in comparison with the background and
polyphonic rhythmic patterns with fingers of either the other tests by means of student’s t-test (Microsoft
left or right hand, a power decrease of the EEG Excel).
α-oscillations was found in the posterior frontal, temporal and central leads (P ≤ 0.05) emphasizing in
3. Results and Discussion
the right anterior temporal and central areas of the Any aural perception and manual playback of
cortex (P ≤ 0.001) (Table 1, Fig. 1: 1-4, 1-5). Appointed
Cortical Arousal Strategies in Left-Handers during the Aural Perception
and Manual Playback of Mono- and Polyphonic Rhythmical Patterns
Table 1 Dynamics of the EEG power fluctuations in the α-range (М ± m, μV²) in left-handed men.
Perception and playback of monophonic Perception and playback of polyphonic Test
Zone rhythmical patterns status of rest
The functional
rhythmical patterns
by right hand Fz
by left hand
by right hand
by left hand
252.3 ± 20.5 Left hemisphere Fp1
420.3 ± 34.2 Right hemisphere Fp2
Fig. 1 Dynamics of the EEG power fluctuations in the α-range during the aural perception and playback of mono- and polyphonic patterns by left-handers with their left and right hands.
1: the status of the functional rest; 2 and 3: the aural perception and manual playback of monophonic patterns respectively with left and right hands; 4 and 5: the aural perception and manual reproduction of polyphonic patterns respectively with left and right hands. the increase (decrease) of parameters in the second test, 0.001 ≤ P ≤ 0.05; the increase (decrease) of parameters in the second test, P ≤ 0.001.
Cortical Arousal Strategies in Left-Handers during the Aural Perception
and Manual Playback of Mono- and Polyphonic Rhythmical Patterns
patterns indicate the growth of the male attention to the influence of mono- and polyphony in the sound of activities and increase of the intensity of a nonspecific
rhythmic patterns, and also the lateralization of their activation of the cortex [1-3, 13] provided sound and
manual reproduction on the peculiarities of the harmonious complications of the pattern structures.
electrical activity of the cortex in the EEG α-range of The performed task literality changes did not show
women with the right and left-profiled motor and significant differences (Fig. 1: 4-5).
auditory asymmetry.
Strengthening of the generalization changes in the
cortex and blocking α-rhythm in the left anterior temporal area (P ≤ 0.05) as compared to monophonic
Acknowledgments
The present work has been performed under the patterns are a reflection of established activation
research project using state budget funds. Reg. No. processes during the aural perception and playback of
0111U002143.
polyphonic rhythmic patterns with the left hand.
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Migalev, D.V. Pyashina, I.N. Pronin, PET and EEG study
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Impact of Omega-3 Nutritional Protocol on the Occurrence of Preeclampsia among High Risk Pregnant Women
Abeer Mokhtar Abu Khatwa and Shadia Hassan Abdel Kader Faculty of Nursing, Cairo University, Cairo 12613, Egypt
Received: April 16, 2012 / Accepted: October 09, 2012 / Published: December 30, 2012.
Abstract: Purpose: to examine the impact of omega-3 nutritional protocol for risky pregnant women on the occurrence of preeclampsia. Topic: Supplementation with omega-3 has been proposed to reduce the risk of preeclampsia, but the effects of this intervention are still uncertain. Method: A RCT (randomized controlled trial) had been conducted on 400 pregnant women between
12 and 16 weeks of gestation. Women were assigned randomly to either the control group or the study group. Achievements: Of the 400 women enrolled, 195 were randomly assigned to the study group and 205 to the control group. There was a significant difference between the study and the control groups in relation to the incidence of preeclampsia (0.5% and 5.5% respectively, P < 0.05).
Key words : Omega-3 fatty acids, high risk pregnancy, preeclampsia, supplementation.
1. Introduction diagnosis, and prompt and appropriate management can improve maternal outcome and possibly perinatal
Hypertensive disorders complicate 10-15% of all outcome as well [3]. At the same time, interventions pregnancies and remain one of the commonest causes that could prevent preeclampsia would have a of maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. They significant impact on maternal and infant health have been reported to account for 13% of direct worldwide and would be more beneficial and cheaper maternal deaths and 18% of fetal or infant deaths [1].
Preeclampsia is the most dangerous type of these Interestingly, more than five decades ago, it was disorders, so it was called toxemia of pregnancy. It noted that [5], a deficient diet was related to a greater affects at least 5-8% of all pregnancies and is risk of preeclampsia. So, many studies had been responsible for 76,000 maternal and 500,000 infant conducted to examine the effect of supplementation of deaths each year worldwide. At the same time, various elements such as calcium, vitamin D, vitamin preeclampsia is the second leading cause of maternal
C, vitamin E, vitamin B1 & B12, copper, magnesium, death with the greatest impact in developing countries, zinc and fish oil on the incidence of preeclampsia. It is where it accounts for 20-80% of the strikingly important to mention that, fish oil is the main natural increased maternal mortality [2].
source of omega-3 fatty acid.
Early delivery is the only effective treatment, but In relation to fish oil, researches had been shifted necessitates preterm birth in many cases. Thus, toward its impact on the prevention of preeclampsia accurate identification of women at risk, early when ecologic studies found low rates of coronary
heart disease (CHD) deaths among Greenland Corresponding author: Abeer Mokhtar Abu Khatwa,
M.Sc., assistant lecturer, research field: maternal and newborn Eskimos consuming large amounts of seafood. This health nursing. E-mail: abeermokhtar31@yahoo.com.
Impact of Omega-3 Nutritional Protocol on the Occurrence of
Preeclampsia among High Risk Pregnant Women
observation has increased interest in the possible group followed the recommended nutritional protocol benefits of fish oils. So, subsequent animal studies,
of omega-3 while, the control group received routine observational studies, and clinical trials have antenatal care. Both groups were followed up examined the health effects of seafood consumption.
prospectively till the first 48 hours after delivery. Some observational studies had reported beneficial
The following data were collected by the effects of omega-3 fatty acids as, inhibition of
investigator from both groups using the designed thromboxane production without affecting questionnaire: socio-demographic data, medical prostacyclin, thus shifting the balance toward a
history, family history, obstetrical history as well as reduced platelet aggregation [6]. At the same time, it
history of previous pregnancies and deliveries. causes vasodilatation by increasing the activity of
Albuminurea was assessed by dipstick in case of endothelium-derived nitric oxide, which causes elevated blood pressure (130/90 or above)
arteries to relax and dilate, thus, lower blood pressure intra-partum or post-partum in the first 48 hours. Also, slightly [7]. In this perspective, some studies had
mode of delivery and presence of any complications reported that, omega-3 fatty acid may prevent
for the mother or the fetus were recorded. While, preeclampsia in high risk pregnant women.
women who had delivered outside El Manial
2. Materials and Methods
University Hospital, had been asked about the same data by the investigator through telephone.
2.1 Materials
3. Results and Discussion
A randomized controlled trial had been conducted on 400 pregnant women between 12 and 16 weeks of
Of the 400 pregnant women enrolled, 195 (48.8%) gestation. Eligible women were not hypertensive and
were assigned to the study group and 205 (51.2%) to had one or more of the following risk factors:
the control group randomly. At study entry, there were nulliparous, her age > 20 or < 35 years old, pregnant
no statistical significant differences between the in more than one fetus or had a history of
groups in relation to socio-demographic preeclampsia in previous pregnancy or in the family.
characteristics which include: age, level of education, Women with any of the following were ineligible:
residence, marital status, occupation, passive smoking fetal anomaly, thrombophilia, chronic renal failure,
and average monthly income. The age range of the and diabetes mellitus. Ante-natal clinic in El Manial
sample was 17-43 years old (Table 1). Regarding to University Hospital was the main setting for collecting
marital status and occupation, all mothers in both data needed to conduct this study. In addition to,
groups were married and house wives. Concerning delivery ward and post natal unit in the department of
average monthly income, it ranged between 500 obstetrics and gynecology.
pound and 1000 pound. There was a statistical significant difference between the groups in relation to
2.2 Methods their medical history (Table 2). As regards the family
Women were recruited into the study in history of mothers in the study and the control groups, convenience and randomly allocated to either a study
there was no statistical significant difference (Table 3). or a control group through using simple random table
In relation to parity, it ranged from para 0 to para 8 and with the assistance rendered by the nurses who
while gravidity ranged from gravida 1 to gravida 13 were available in the outpatient clinic during the data
with no statistical significant difference between the collection. This allocation was concealed from the
groups. There were no statistical significant nurses allocating a woman into the trial. The study
differences between both groups in relation to incidence
Impact of Omega-3 Nutritional Protocol on the Occurrence of
Preeclampsia among High Risk Pregnant Women
Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of mothers in the study and the control groups.
Items
Study group (n = 195)
Control group (n = 205)
χ2 P 1-Illiterate
Educational level
No.
No.
33 16.9 34 16.6 2-Read & write
30 15.5 32 15.6 3-Primary school
33 16.9 35 17.1 4-Preparatory school
35 17.9 37 18 0.32 0.57 5-Secondary school
33 16.9 35 17.1 6-University
31 15.9 32 15.6 Total 195 100.0 205 100.0 Residence 1-Rural
99 50.8 105 51.2 2-Urban
96 49.2 100 48.8 0.44 0.51 Total 195 100.0 205 100.0
Passive smoking 1-Yes
99 50.8 104 50.7 2-No
96 49.2 101 49.3 0.01 0.91 Total 195 100.0 205 100.0 Income (pound) 1-500-600
65 33.4 73 35.6 2-600-700
73 36.9 71 34.6 0.14 0.71 3-800-900
58 29.7 61 29.8 Total 195 100.0 205 100.0
Table 2 Medical history of mothers in the study and the control groups.
Items χ2 P
Study group (n = 195)
Control group (n = 205)
No. % No. %
1-Anemia 6 3.1 1 0.5 2-RH incompatibility
1 0.5 1 0.5 3-Cardiac disease
8 4.1 1 0.5 9.14 0.002 4-Respiratory disease
5 2.6 3 1.5 5-Renal disease
6 3.1 1 0.5 6-No diseases
Table 3 Family history of mothers in the study and the control groups.
Items No. % No. % χ2 P 1-Hypertension
Study group (n = 195)
Control group (n = 205)
2- PIH (Pregnancy induced
hypertension) 3-Cardiac disease
9 4.6 0 0 0.26 0.61 4-Congenital anomalies
of abortion, preterm birth, still birth, congenital complications and type of complications (Table 4). anomalies, previous neonatal weight, gestational age
There was a significant difference between the study of previous delivery, presence of neonatal and the control groups in relation to the incidence of
Impact of Omega-3 Nutritional Protocol on the Occurrence of
Preeclampsia among High Risk Pregnant Women
preeclampsia (0.5% and 5.5% respectively, P < 0.05) stress on nutrients containing omega-3 fatty acids. (Table 5) and onset of hypertension (t = 2.70, P =
Then, giving written booklet designed by the 0.004).
investigator containing the same data. The second step Occurrence of preeclampsia was the primary
was the administration of omega-3 as a food outcome in the current trial and findings revealed a
supplement in the form of omega-3 plus soft gelatin statistical significant difference between the groups in
capsules, each capsule is composed of 1,000 mg fish relation to it which might be contributed to the impact
oil (EPA/DHA 30%) and 100 mg wheat germ oil. The of the trail recommended nutritional protocol.
total daily dose of fish oil was 3,000 mg and 300 mg The study nutritional protocol was conducted for
of wheat germ oil. Omega-3 plus capsules were the study group in two steps. First step was giving oral
prescribed by outpatient clinic obstetricians to be health education about preeclampsia and making
taken oral three times per day after meal starting from
Table 4 Obstetrical history of mothers among the study and the control groups.
Study group (n = 195)
Control group (n = 205)
Items TP
Parity 2.54 1.28 2.54 1.43 0.35 0.37 Gravidity 2.71 1.97 3.00 2.17 1.41 0.08
No. % No. % χ2 P Incidence of abortion Yes 45 23.1 52 25.4 0.47 0.49 No (include primigravida)
Incidence of preterm birth Yes 8 4.1 12 5.9 0.80 0.37 No (include primigravida)
Incidence of still birth
Yes 2 1 5 2.4
1.29 0.26 No (include primigravida)
Previous neonatal weight 1-AGA (Appropriate for
gestational age) 2-SGA (Small for gestational
2.31 0.13 age) 3-No (primigravida)
Gestational age at delivery 1-Full term
2-Preterm 6 3.1 6 2.9 2.25 0.13 3-No (primigravida)
Neonatal complications
Yes 3 1.5 6 2.9
1.00 0.32 No (include primigravida)
Type of complications Still birth
Table 5 Incidence of preeclampsia among mothers in the study and the control groups.
Items No. % No. % χ2 P Incidence of preeclampsia
Study group (n = 195)
Control group (n = 205)
Yes 1 0.5 11 5.5
7.36 0.007 No 194 99.5 194 94.5 Significant
Impact of Omega-3 Nutritional Protocol on the Occurrence of
Preeclampsia among High Risk Pregnant Women
Table 6 Maternal outcomes of mothers in the study and the control groups.
Study group (n = 195)
Control group (n = 205)
Items χ2 P
No. % No. %
Occurrence of complication Yes 4 2 11 5.4 0.11 No 191 98 194 94.6 2.57 Not
Total 195 100 205 100 Significant Type of complication
Preeclampsia 1 0.5 11 5.4 Gestational diabetes
Ante-partum Hge. 1 0.5 0 0 2.57 0.11 Perineal tear
1 0.5 0 0 Total 4 2 11 5.4
the 20th week of gestation till delivery or the abdominal palpation for determination of fundal level, diagnosis of preeclampsia. Also, the investigator
lie, presentation, attitude of fetus and fetal heart sound had reported to the mothers that, omega-3 plus
auscultation using the electronic sonicade and capsules are food supplements which have no side
counting it for one minute.
effects or interaction with other food supplements Ultrasound examination for correlating gestational taken during pregnancy. Women were specifically
age by it and by date, establishing fetal number and asked how often they missed taking the trial
ensuring absence of fetal congenital anomalies was capsules and how many times a week they missed
conducted for both groups at 20 weeks. The taking all the tablets. Adherence was defined by
investigator explained the aim of performing any consumption of at least 80 percent of all capsules at
physical examination to the woman. Findings of recommended times.
examinations were reported in order to reassure the Randomization was performed through utilizing a
woman. In relation to routine assessment, maternal computer balanced generated random numbers. A
and fetal wellbeing assessments including blood computer numbers of one to three digits organized in
pressure, weight, presence of pathological edema, 240 blocks were generated from Excel computer
presence of proteinura and fetal wellbeing through program. Each number has been inserted separately
auscultating fetal heart rate and asking about fetal into an envelop by the investigator to obtain 240
movement were conducted for both groups. sealed envelopes which were used for groups
The investigator attended the delivery of women in assignment.
both groups who had been delivered in El Manial Initial assessment was performed for each woman
University Hospital. Intra-partum assessment of blood in both groups to obtain the baseline data on initial
pressure in semi sitting position every 30 minutes in meeting such as: 1) vital signs especially blood
the active phase (in between uterine contractions) and pressure that was measured with a every one hour in the first 48 hours after delivery was sphygmomanometer, with the woman seated and the
performed.
fourth Korotkoff sound was used to determine the
4. Conclusion
diastolic blood pressure; 2) weight; 3) height; 4) presence of pathological edema; 5) presence of
Supplementation with omega-3 during pregnancy proteinura which was assessed by dipstick in case of
may reduce the risk of preeclampsia in risky pregnant elevated blood pressure (130/90 or above); 6)
women.
Impact of Omega-3 Nutritional Protocol on the Occurrence of
1419
Preeclampsia among High Risk Pregnant Women
Acknowledgments
168 (2008) 1374. [4] J.S. Cnossen, G.Ter Riet, B.W. Mol, Are tests for Sedico Company represented by Dr/Azzam Mahran
predicting preeclampsia good enough to make screening the medical sector manager as they sponsored the trial viable? A review of reviews and critical appraisal, Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 88 (2009) 758.
with the omega-3 FA-enriched supplemental products. [5] B.S. Burke, Diet and nutrition during pregnancy,
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Journal of Life Sciences 6 (2012) 1420-1427
Wildlife Crossing Zones along the Ring Changbai Mountain Scenic Highway, China
1 2 1 1 1 3 3 Yun Wang 1 , Zhengji Piao , Lei Guan , Haifeng Li , Qilin Li , Yayi Lu , Lei Gao and Jiding Chen 1. China Academy of Transportation Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
2. Changbaishan Academy of Sciences, Antu 133613, China 3. Jilin Provincial High Class Highway Construction Bureau, Changchun 130216, China
Received: June 22, 2012 / Accepted: August 13, 2012 / Published: December 30, 2012.
Abstract: The 84-km long Changbai Mountain scenic Ring highway encircles and bisects the nature reserve. With the expected increasing traffic flow, increased wildlife vehicle collisions and barrier effects are likely. In order to identify wildlife crossing zones and future protective measurement, the authors carried out 10 wildlife highway crossing surveys during the winter in 2008-2009. For each 5-km section, the authors recorded highway crossings of all small/mid-sized and large mammals and one large protected bird species, the hazel grouse (Bonasa bonasia) and noted snow depth and the dominant vegetation type. The authors detected 12 mammal species and one avifauna species crossing the highway 502 times. The smallest of mammal was the Eurasian red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris). Large mammals detected included the wild boar (Sus scrofe) (64) and brown bear (Ursus arctos) (1). The average number of wildlife crossings per 5 km was 29.5. It was found that species richness and crossing frequency was higher in sections with broad leaf forest compared to sections with white birch secondary forest significantly. The authors suggested that disturbance of broad leaf forest be minimized during construction and strict protection be established for broad leaf forests around Changbai Mountain National Nature Reserve.
Key words: Highway, wildlife, crossing zones, road ecology, Changbai Mountain Natural Reserve, China.
1. Introduction construction and monitoring along Simao-
Xiaomengyang expressway in Yunnan 14 and There were lots of studies regarding the impact of wildlife’s passage monitoring among Qinghai- road construction on wildlife among Europe, North Xizang railway 15. China is one of the richest American, Australia, including negative effects which biological resource countries in the world, ranked 8th consisted of road killing [1-3], avoiding effect [4], in global wildlife biodiversity 16. China’s road crossing behavior 5, migration barriers 6, habitat network with 3,984 thousand kilometer spread by the degradation 7, habitat fragment 8, gene loss 9, year 2010, ranking 2nd in the world, especially and also considering positive effects which consisted freeway with 74 km kilometers length, also ranking of habitat creation 10 and mobility enhanced 11. 2nd in the world, presumably will exceed USA by the The studies regarding the impact of road end of 2012 17. It is urgent and significant for China construction on wildlife in China include road to carry out the studies regarding impact of highway construction impacts on Tibetan antelope across on wildlife 18. The pattern of wildlife across road, Qinghai-Tibet highway or railway 12, 13, wildlife including species, frequency, location, time, is vital to conservation covered by Asian elephants’ passages wildlife passage setting, but there are few studies for
wildlife across road continuous monitoring in China, Corresponding author: Yun Wang, Ph.D., associate professor, research field: road ecology. E-mail: therefore, lacking of theoretical basis about wildlife
wangyun80314@163.com.
Wildlife Crossing Zones along the Ring Changbai Mountain Scenic Highway, China
passage design. (Phellodendrion amurense) etc.. More than 1,225 Road constructions are carried out dramatically for
wildlife species are active in the region, 59 species of tourism and economic development in Changbai
which are national key protected species, mainly Mountain Area 19. It should be considered for road
including National 1st Class Protected Wildlife sable impact on wildlife, because Changbai Mountain was
(Martes zibellina), and roe deer (Capreolus pygargus), rich in wildlife resource and used to be the main
yellow weasel (Mustela sibirica) etc.. Additionally, habitat for Siberian tiger historically 20. Recently,
National 1st Class Protected Wildlife Siberian tiger international organizations (such as WWF (World
appeared in the area historically 20. Wildlife Foundation), WCS (Wildlife Conservation
2.2 Ring Changbai Mountain Scenic Highway Society)) combined Chinese government to carry out
some studies about Siberian tiger passage Although, traffic volume of Changbai Mountain constructions, habitat restoration in and around nature
scenic highway is less than 100 vehicles per day in reserve, and tigers’ preys monitoring 21. It is
winter, yet it has been upgraded to a paved surface. significantly providing reasonable protective measures
Recently a rapid increase in traffic flow on the and strategies through studies and surveys on pattern
highway has been observed and increased of wildlife across road and relationship between
wildlife-vehicle collisions and barrier effects are likely. wildlife and environment.
Ring Changbai Mountain scenic highway
2. Materials and Methods improvement project began in late 2007, which
mainly circled Changbai Mountain Nature Reserve,
2.1 Changbai Mountain National Nature Reserve covering existing forest road. The road starts from Changbai Moutain National Nature Reserve is
Erdaobaihe Town, Antu County of Yanbian Korean located in southeast of Jilin province, across Antu
Autonomous Prefecture, and goes till Manjiang Town, county of Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and
Baishan City. The total length of the highway is Fusong County and Changbai County of Hunjiang
84.132 km, with about 21 km (K10-K31) section Area, adjacent to North Korea. The nature reserve lays
overlapped the edge of Nature Reserve and 6 km between E1 27°42 ′55″-128°16′48″ and N (K31-K37) section bisected experimental zone of 41°41 ′49″-42°51′18″, covering an area of 196,465 ha.
Changbai Mountain Nature Reserve. Secondary road This area has a monsoon continental mountainous
standard was carried out along this highway, with a climate, with long and cold winter, and short summer
design speed 60 km/h, and subgrade width of almost warm and humid. Annual average temperature is about
10 m (Fig. 1).
2-5 °C, with almost 2,300 sunshine hours per year, Many ginseng fields, mixed human activities area, and frost-free period of 100 days. Changbai Mountain
are distributed among Ring Changbai Mountain is one of East Asia’s largest volcanic areas, which
scenic highway (K0-K10). Forestry agency planted consisted of volcanic lava tectonic geomorphology,
many tree seedlings, mainly of spruce, along the water landscapes, glaciers, and periglacial landforms.
roadside, and put rat poison in order to combat the Changbai Mountain Reserve is one of the man and
destruction of rodents in the area every year. White biosphere reserve areas, and China’s richest birch secondary forest distributes along K37-K84 biodiversity area. There are 2,277 plants species and
section mosaiced in ginseng fields and human
25 species of national important conserving plants, disturbance partly. As K0-K10 section, Forestry mainly including Korean pine (Pinus konaiensis),
agency put rat poison preventing the destruction of mongolian scotch pine (P. syluesris), yellow pineapple
rodents.
Wildlife Crossing Zones along the Ring Changbai Mountain Scenic Highway, China
China
Fig. 1 Sketch map of research area.
2.3 Field Survey last snow event. The authors recorded most mammals active along Ring Changbai Mountain scenic
Line transects of low speed cars (20-30 km/h) highway, as ungulates including roe, wild boar, red
combined pedestrian 22 were taken for recoding deer and other small mammals. Only hazel grouses’
footprints, feces, and tracks of food residue from entities and footprints were recorded, as the only one
wildlife across road zones. The authors concluded
bird species.
wildlife crossing based on seeing wildlife’s tracks on both sides of the highway. The authors set 5 km
2.4 Data Analysis
intervals along the road, for recording wildlife across road species, frequency, location and environment
Normal distribution of data was tested by K-S Test characters consisting of maximum snow depth and
(One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test method),, vegetation types (divided into broad leaf forest, and
and variances about species and frequency among white birch secondary forest), meanwhile took
various sections were tested by one-way ANOVA photos and used GPS to record the geographic
(one-way analysis of variance). Because of position. The authors recorded highway crossing
homogeneity among variance, data was compared by zones of all small/mid-sized and large mammals and
LSD method (least significant difference method), one large protected bird species, the hazel grouse
otherwise Tamhane method was used. Interrelation (Bonasa bonasia). Surveys were conducted in among species, frequency and snow depth was November and December 2008, November and
analyzed by Spearman correlation analysis. The December 2009, January to March 2010, with 10
differences about species and frequency in various surveys in total, and each survey lasted about 2 days.
vegetation types were analyzed by t-test. All above Each survey takes place two or three days after the
analysis was carried out in SPSS 16.0.
Wildlife Crossing Zones along the Ring Changbai Mountain Scenic Highway, China
3. Results
tested using K-S normal distribution among 17 sections for species richness. Section K60-65 and
3.1 Wildlife Species, Frequency and Locations across section K80-85 were neglected as data of these two Ring Changbai Mountain Scenic Highway sections were abnormal. Section K0-5 was also
There were 502 records including 13 wildlife neglected as data of this section was too few to species recorded in 10 surveys, of which 3 surveys
analyze. LSD test was also performed. Significant happened November and December 2008 and 7
differences (F = 2.706, df = 13, P = 0.002) were surveys happened from November 2009 to March
observed among species richness of other 14 sections. 2010. All species found were protected species, two
The variance of 14 group data was homogeneity (P = wildlife species were listed in National First-Class
0.217) by Levene variance homogeneity test, and Protected Wildlife, four wildlife species were listed in
species richness of section K10-15 was higher than National Second-Class Protected Wildlife, 7 wildlife
section K15-20 and K35-80 significantly, and section species were listed in Terrestrial Wildlife List of
K20-35 was higher than section K45-80 significantly. Beneficial or Important in Economy and Science. The
Data were analyzed and tested using K-S normal most frequently observed species acrossing road is
distribution among 17 sections for crossing frequency. Siberian weasel (Mustela sibirica) (169 times), Section K80-85 was neglected as data was abnormal.
followed by Manchurian hare (Lepus mandschuricus) Section K0-5 was also neglected as data was too few (100 times), wild boar (Sus scrofe) (64 times),
to analyze. Significant differences were observed squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) (57 times), Siberian roe
among different crossing frequencies in different deer (Capreolus capreolus) (50 times), and sections through one-way ANOVA test. The variance yellow-throated marten (Charronia flavigula) (34
of these data was heterogeneity by Levene variance times). The crossing frequency of these species
homogeneity test. In contrast, the difference was not accounts for 94.42% of all (Table 1). The average
significant by Tamhane method.
number of wildlife crossings per 5 km was 29.5.
3.2 Factors
The authors analyzed whether there are any differences between species richness and frequency in
3.2.1 Snow Depth
various sections by one-way ANOVA. Results were Species richness and crossing frequency of various showed in Figs. 2 and 3. Data were analyzed and
sections showed abnormal distribution by K-S normal
Table 1 Wildlife species observed in the research region in winter during 2008 and 2009.
Species Scientific name Class Order Family Protection level Crossing frequency Himalayan weasel
Mammalia Carnivora Mustelidae * 169 Manchurian hare
Mustela sibirica
100 Wild bore
Lepus mandschuricus
Mammalia Lagomorpha Leporidae
64 Squirrels
Sus scrofe
Mammalia Artiodactyla Suidae
57 Roe deer
Sciurus vulgaris
Mammalia Rodent
Sciuridae
* 50 Yellow-throated marten
Capreolus capreolus
Mammalia Artiodactyla Cervidae
II 34 Hazel grouse
Charronia flavigula
Mammalia Carnivora
Mustelidae
Avian Galliformes Tetraonidae II 5 Sable
Bonasa bonasia
I 4 Red deer
Martes zibellina
Mammalia Carnivora
Mustelidae
II 5 Least weasel
Cervus laphus
Mammalia Artiodactyla Cervidae
2 Sika deer
Mustela nivalis
Mammalia Carnivora
Mustelidae
I 10 Brown bear
Cervus nippon
Mammalia Artiodactyla Cervidae
II 1 Wild cat
Ursus arctos
Mammalia Carnivora Ursidae
1 “I” represents National First-Class Protected Wildlifes; “II” represents National Second-Class Protected Wildlifes; “*” represents Terrestrial Wildlife List of Beneficial or Important in Economy and Science.
Felis silvestris
Mammalia Carnivora
Felidae
Wildlife Crossing Zones along the Ring Changbai Mountain Scenic Highway, China
ness ich
Fig. 2 Species richness of wildlife crossing highway during winters in two years.
Fig. 3 Crossing frequency of wildlife crossing highway during winters in two years.
test, and their correlation was analyzed by Spearman frequency, but was not significant. correlation analysis. There was no significant
3.2.2 Vegetation
correlation found neither between species richness and The vegetation along Ring Changbai Mountain snow depth (R = -0.170, P = 0.123, N = 84), nor
scenic highway was briefly classified as natural between crossing frequency and snow depth (R =
broad-leafed forest (K10-40) and white birch -0.191, P = 0.083, N = 84). Therefore, snow depth was
secondary forest for other sections. Wildlife species negatively related to species richness and crossing
richness showed normal distribution by K-S normal
Wildlife Crossing Zones along the Ring Changbai Mountain Scenic Highway, China
test, and significant differences were observed migration routes before it can be effective 14. between the vegetation types (t = 3.662, df = 15, p =
4.2 Factors Impacting Roadside Wildlife Crossing 0.002). Crossing frequency also showed normal
Zones
distribution, and differences were significant (t = 4.366, df = 15, P = 0.005) between the vegetation
The elevation of Ring Changbai Mountain scenic types.
highway varies from 707.86 m to 1089.74 m, and Therefore, both species richness and crossing
average altitude is about 901.43 m. Previous studies frequency was significantly higher in sections with
show that with the increase of snow depth the broad leaf forest compared to sections with white
frequency of wildlife across road decreased. When birch secondary forest.
snow depth reaches 50 cm or more, it affects deer and wild boar feeding activity and movement, making
4. Discussion
predation of medium or small mustelidae wildlife
4.1 Spatial Distribution of Roadside Wildlife Crossing more difficult because of small rodents’ activity below Zones
snow cover. Red deer, roe deer and other ungulates In the study, the authors analyzed preliminarily
would walk as short as possible, consuming less characters of wildlife crossing along Ring Changbai
energy for more food 26. In this study, there was Mountain scenic highway as affected by vegetation
negative correlation between snow depth and species type, snow depth, human activities and others aspects.
richness or crossing frequency, but not significantly. There are 24 wildlife species in roadside (200 m range
This result may be caused by small snow fall during area) accounting for 47.06% of mammals species in
survey period. Most of the wildlife active in roadside Changbai Mountain National Nature Reserve 23. In
area was herbivores and carnivores; snow depth had this study, the authors recorded 12 mammals species
impact on the foraging behavior of Mustelidae crossing highway, accounting for 50% mammals
wildlife. This study showed that wildlife activity species of roadside and 23.53% mammals species of
frequency decreased with increasing snow in higher nature reserve. Thus, it revealed that wildlife was
elevation section.
active in roadside area. Local highway agency should Species richness and crossing frequency differed pay more attention to wildlife crossing highway and
significantly among sections within a various take measurement to reduce road kill and barrier effect
vegetation class, which in natural broad-leaved forest 24.
was notably higher than those in birch forest, and it The differences of species richness were significant
suggested various vegetation around road area was among various sections. Species richness of section
various attractive on wildlife. Wildlife distribution (K10-35) was higher than others, and crossing
density varied with vegetation. Li et al. surveyed frequency of section (K10-35, especially in K10-15
rodent density in Changbai Mountain area, with 2.64 and K20-35) was higher than others. These results
rodents per day per clip in secondary birch while 4.08 suggested locations of wildlife activities were rodents per day per clip in broad-leaved and pine relatively regular, which sections were adjacent to and
forest respectively 27. According to result of the bisecting Nature Reserve. More wildlife passages
authors’ survey in 2006, rodent density was 76.8 per should be provided among these sensitive sections to
ha in conifer forest while the density was only 16.8 facilitate routes for wildlife across road. This result is
per ha in white birch secondary forest. In this study, consistent with other relevant researches 25. Wildlife
sections in natural broad-leaved forest distributed passages must coincide with wildlife historical belong to nature reserve, so there were few human
Wildlife Crossing Zones along the Ring Changbai Mountain Scenic Highway, China
disturbances. While sections in white birch secondary Project (Grant No. 2011 318 670 1290, 2010 318 221 forest don’t belong to Nature Reserve; human
009) and Jilin Provincial Transport Science and disturbances were popular relatively because of
Technology Project (Grant No. 2008-1-29). logging. Some studies showed that human disturbance
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