16 competencies in a second language. Therefore, in this first hypothesis, Krashen
points out the differences of the terms learning and acquisition. Language learning refers to the way of learners developing competencies of the second
language in a formal condition. It gives chances to the learners to become conscious and aware of the rules or grammars of the second language. In a
learning process, the language grammars are explicitly learned and as a result, it makes the learners understand the second language.
In contrast to language learning, language acquisition refers to the way of learners developing competencies of the second language in informal ways.
Language acquirers are not explicitly exposed to rules and grammars of the second language; consequently, the acquisition process is a subconscious process.
In a language acquisition, the acquirers are aware of the second language grammatical form instead of the use of the second language for communication.
When language acquirers have developed the competencies of second language, they will have a “feel” off correctness that will help them to sense whether the
sentences they make are correct or not. The second hypothesis is the natural order hypothesis. In formulating this
hypothesis, Krashen refers to several prior research findings. Krashen states, “Grammatical morphemes seem to be acquired in a natural order. Some structures
are acquired earlier and some later”. In other words, the acquisition of the rules of a language happens in predictable order.
According to this second hypothesis, the natural order occurs in both language acquisitions by children and adult in similar order. The following figure
17 shows the average order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes for English as
a second language, from both children and adult learners by Krashen 1977.
The third hypothesis is the monitor hypothesis. This hypothesis agrees that both acquisition and learning occur in adult language learners’ second language
competence development. This hypothesis argues that acquisitions occur before learning process and it is responsible for learners’ fluency either in written or
spoken form whereas a learning process is functioned as monitor that responsible for correcting the misuse of grammatical rules. Language learning plays its role as
a monitor because acquisition has taken place before the learning occurs. The monitoring role can be performed by other learners or by the learners oneself
self-correction. Krashen differentiates language learners according to learners’ individual variation into three types of learners 1 over-users, occurs when
language learners use the ‘monitor’ function all the time, 2 under-users, happens to the learners who have not learned about language rules or those who prefer not
Figure 2.2
Order of Acquisition Krashen 1981
18 to use their “monitor” function and 3 optimal users, it is when learners use their
“monitor” function appropriately. Briefly, there are three specific conditions in this hypothesis: time, focus on form and know the rule. There are some
constraints to successfully be a “monitor”, first the language acquirer has to know the rule; second, it is necessary for the acquirer to think about the correctness or
focus on the form. In addition, an acquirer must have time to monitor their spoken language. The following figure depicts the acquisition and learning process in
second language production that employs “monitor” function according to Krashen 1982.
The fourth hypothesis is the input hypothesis. This hypothesis explains an idea of second language acquisition, on how it takes place instead of the language
learning process. The significant condition for language acquisition to take place is that when the acquirer comprehends the input language that contains structures
“a bit beyond” acquirer’s current level of competence. For example, when an acquirer’s level of competence is at level “i” then the acquisition takes place
when the acquirer is exposed to comprehensible input that is considered at level “i+1”. Krashen also emphasizes that acquirer who has been exposed to a
comprehensible input later will progress and improve their language competence along with the natural order.
Figure 2. 3 Acquisition and learning in second language production Krashen 1982
19 The fifth hypothesis is the affective filter hypothesis this hypothesis was
proposed by Dulay and Burt 1977, as cited in Krashen 1982, this hypothesis counts the affective factors’ role in second language acquisition. Krashen
mentions three types of affective variables influencing the success in second language acquisition they are motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. A highly
motivated language performer generally does better in second language acquisition. A high self-confidence and a good self-image tend to make a
performer acquire a better result. A low level of anxiety that appears in language learners indicates that there is no mental block influencing the success in second
language acquisition. The following figure depicts the operation of “affective filter”.
b. Stages of Second Language Acquisition
In both first and second language acquisitions, there are many processes experienced by the language learners before they are able to use the language as a
means of communications. Haynes 2007 beliefs that “all new learners of the English language developing through the same stages to acquire a language.
However, the length of time of each student spends at particular stages may vary greatly”. That is why the success of second language acquisition is more various
compared to the first language acquisition.
Figure 2. 4
Operation of “affective filter” Krashen 1982
20 There are many models of the processes in second language acquisition;
one of them is a natural approach. It is one of the simple models based on the teaching approach. In this approach, Krashen and Terrell 1983 propose five
basic stages of second language acquisition. 1 pre-production, 2 early production, 3 speech emergence 4 intermediate fluency and 5 advanced
fluency. The first stage is the pre-production stage that is also said to be a silent
period where the learners have limited comprehension. Their level of vocabulary is around 500 words. Most of the learners will use keyword and similar phrases as
well as present-tense verbs. Another characteristic of learners in this stage is that they have limited comprehension and they tend to produce one or two-word
responses. It occurs due to their limited vocabulary as well as grammatical knowledge because their most commonly used verb is present-tense verbs.
Therefore, in this stage, the learners seem to be silent learners due to their lack of productive skills. Therefore, the teachers’ prompt in this stage is only in a form of
simple instruction such as ‘show me…, point the ….” Hence, to respond the teachers’ prompt, the students only need to use small amount of their productive
skill. The second stage is early production stage in which the learners gradually
increase their vocabulary level into around 1000 words and they begin to be able to create short language forms although it is not yet correct. The learners start to
be able to use their productive skill although it is only in small amount. In this stage teachers can use the yesno question, eitheror questions or show the
students graph or tables and ask them to respond to the teachers’ prompt.
21 The third stage is called as speech emergence. Learners in this stage have
already had at least 3000 words in their vocabulary and they start to produce short sentences and simple phrases. Their productive skills are developing as their
ability to produce longer and more complete sentences increase. When these language learners start to produce sentences, they also start to make grammars and
pronunciations errors. In addition, they also begin to be able to initiate conversations and make inquiries or small questions. Their receptive skills are
also developing; they begin to understand short stories with help from images or pictures related to the stories. As the time goes, their understanding is getting
better although they sometimes still misunderstand some information. Teacher can use a more complex instructions or questions for the students at this level. The
question words that can be used as the teachers’ prompt such as why and how. The fourth stage is called as intermediate fluency in which the learners are
progressing and get a much better comprehension. Their productive skills are also getting better and they make less grammatical errors compared to those in the
speech emergence stage. Learners’ vocabulary level reaches around 6000 words and it helps the learners to be more productive, they can produce more sentences.
The last stage is the advanced fluency in which the learners have acquired a near- native level of speech. They have excellent productive skills as well as receptive
skills. The following table shows the stages of second language acquisition by
Krashen and Terrell 1983 as cited in Hill and Flynn 2006. There are stages, characteristics, approximate time frame as well as the teachers’ prompt that
suitable with the characteristic of learners in each stage.
22
Table 2.1 The Stages of Second Language Acquisitions by Krashen and Terrell
1983 as cited in Hill and Flynn 2006
Stage Characteristics
Approximate time frame
Teacher Prompts
Preproduction The student
• Has minimal comprehension
• Does not verbalize • Nod “Yes” and “No”
• Draws and points 0 – 6 months
• Show me … • Circle the
… • Where is?
• Who has? …
Early Production
The student • Has limited comprehension
• Produces one- or two-word • Participates using
keywords and familiar phrases
• Use present-verbs 6 months – 1
year • YesNo
questions • Eitheror
questions • Lists
• Labels
Speech Emergence
The student • Has good comprehension
• Cam produce simple
sentences • Makes grammar and
pronunciation errors • Frequently misunderstands
jokes 1 – 3 years
• Why? • How?
• Explain … • Phrase or
short- sentence
answers
Intermediate Fluency
The student • Has excellent
comprehension • Makes few grammatical
errors 3 – 5 years
• What would happen if?
• What do you think?
… Advanced
Fluency The student has near-native
level of speech 5 – 7 years
• Decide if … • Retell …
In addition to the five stages of second language acquisition as proposed by Krashen and Terrel, Saville and Troike 2006 propose three stages occurring
in both first and second language learning. They state that in general there are three phases in language learning, it occurs in both L1 and L2 learning. The
phases are the initial state, intermediate state, and final state. Saville and Troike agree that there are differences occur in L1 and L2 learning phases. There are
23 differences in first and second language learning that makes it important to dig out
more information on how the second language is acquired. This table compares three states occurring in L1 and L2 development.
Table 2.2 Comparison between first and second language development Troike -
Saville, 2006
L1 L2
INITIAL STATE Innate capacity
Innate capacity? L1 knowledge
World knowledge Interaction skills
INTERMEDIATE STATES
Child grammar Learners Language
Basic processes Maturation
Transfer Necessary conditions
Input
Reciprocal interaction
Input Facilitating conditions
Feedback Aptitude
Motivation Instruction
………….
FINAL STATE Native competence
Multilingual competence
From the table above it can be elaborated that in L1 learners language is innate, as stated by Chomsky 1957 that language can only be accounted for by
an innate, biological language acquisition device LAD or system. It is also believed by Chomsky that infants universally possess an innate “grammar
template”, or universal grammar. With this innate ability, the infants will be able to pick out the grammatical rules of the language they hear spoken around them as
they gradually construct the grammar of their mother tongue. For the second language acquisition, the innateness is still questionable as there are many factors
