Theoretical Description REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

11 aware of and strategically use the text organization, they will build better reading comprehension to use in writing a text as cited in Armbruster Osborn, 2002, p. 96. This idea is supported by Nunan who suggests that written text analysis should include organization analysis 2003, p. 94. 2 Genre Every genre of text has its own text organization, for example narrative text consists of orientation, complication, and resolution, while recount text consists of orientation, series of events, and reorientation. If the students know the genre of the text they are reading, they know what structure to expect and it will help them to construct the position of ideas Armbruster Osborn, 2002, p. 96. The students can identify the text genre by seeing the purpose or the topic of the text. 3 Main idea If students are able to identify the main idea of every paragraph, every sentence in the paragraph will be easily clicked into place Langan, 1986, p. 319. Even when the paragraphs are reordered, students will be able to rearrange them to create a well-organized text if they can identify the main idea of every paragraph. By knowing the main idea, students are able to connect one paragraph to the another paragraph. 2.1.2 Paragraph Writing Skill This part discusses the paragraph writing skill. The researcher presents the characteristics of a good paragraph and paragraph writing skills. 12 2.1.2.1 The Characteristics of a Good Paragraph According to Brown, written texts are supposed to meet certain standards 2001, p. 335. The standards are used to define a paragraph as a good one. The researcher will mention the characteristics of a good paragraph. 1 Topic sentence Topic sentence contains the relevant information about one main or central idea. The topic sentence guides the writer to select information, to add relevant information, but to exclude the irrelevant information Bram, 1995, p. 13. According to Chaplen, a good paragraph must contain topic sentence called controlling idea which is completely developed 1970, p. 1. The controlling idea also restricts the idea by limiting the information that can be included in the paragraph. Thus, students will not brainstorm all ideas in a paragraph. They will break down all ideas they have and put the ideas into the paragraph by segmenting the ideas. They will decide which idea can be put in the paragraph. 2 Unity of supporting sentences All sentences in a paragraph should focus on the topic sentence. Those sentences support the topic sentence to create a good paragraph. The supporting sentences develop the paragraph because they function to clarify the problem Bram, 1995, p. 20. The unity of supporting sentences is controlled by a principle that an old information comes before the new information Raimes, 1983, p. 57 3 Coherence In order to create a good paragraph, the students must be able to connect the paragraph with another paragraph. Therefore, they should pay attention to the 13 information connection or called coherence. A good text maintains the coherence because every coherent paragraph contains smoothly-connected ideas Bram, 1995, p. 21. Based on the theory proposed by Hoey, Martin, and Rochery in 1987, the text coherence can be maintained by paying attention to the generic structure of a text. The generic structure can support the text coherence by providing the pattern which is appropriate to its communicative purpose as cited in Lee, 2002, p.34. 2.1.2.2 Paragraph Writing Skill The dominant model for many years saw writing as a textual product. A text is categorized as a good one if it maintains the coherent arrangement of elements structured according to a system of rules Hyland, 2002, p. 6. Therefore, people believe that writing is a matter of product. The final product is supposed to meet certain prescribed pattern of organization. In order to meet the requirements of writing, students should possess some aspects that are included in paragraph writing skills. 1 Analyzing and imitating pattern of organization Raimes proposes the idea that paragraph writing skill includes the students’ ability to copy paragraphs, analyze the form of model paragraphs, and imitate model passages 1983, p. 8.Before the students write their own texts, they should analyze the elements of the text and identify the organization to gain the knowledge of the elements which construct a text and the organization pattern. The knowledge will be employed in the writing stage to structure and connect the ideas in the text. 14 2 Developing a topic sentence The students must be able to state the topic sentence, including the main idea and elaborate it by adding supporting details Raimes, 1983, p. 116. If the students are able to develop the topic sentence, they can maintain the organization and the connection of the ideas in each paragraph. Wallace comes up with the idea that paragraph writing skill includes the ability to develop topic and frame 2010, p. 91. The topic refers to the content of what to write and frame helps the writer to structure or organize the content. If students are able to develop the topic and use the frame, it will result in creating good paragraphs. 3 Organizing idea When the students write, they will present their ideas through their writings. In order to organize the ideas, the students must be able to put the sentences together and connect the sentences Raimes, 1983, p. 115. If they can organize the ideas, the texts will be organized as well. 2.1.3 Types of Writing Process There are various types of writing process that can be applied in the classroom. The teacher can choose the writing process to suit the purpose of writing. According to Hyland, there are four types of writing process 2002, p. 3. - Familiarization The purpose of this writing process is to help the students familiarize themselves with the grammar and vocabulary through writing. Therefore, the grammar or vocabulary will be related to particular genre or topic. 15 - Controlled writing The purpose of this writing process is to encourage the students use the fixed patterns in writing. The teacher will introduce the pattern of a text to the students. Then, the students copy the pattern in writing their own texts. However, the students may not change the pattern introduced by the teacher. - Guided writing The purpose of this writing process is to let the students imitate the model of a text. In this process, the students are encouraged to be independent. Before writing, the students should analyze a text to gain useful knowledge for writing, such as the generic structure and the language features. - Free writing The purpose of this writing process is to let the students develop their writing patterns and use their own patterns in writing essays. 2.1.4 Writing Cycle Writing is a matter of process. The students can learn how to write through curriculum cycle proposed by Callaghan and Rothery in 1988 as cited in Knapp and Watkins, 2005, pp. 78-81. The purpose of designing the curriculum is to give direction in learning to write. The curriculum is divided into three stages. They are modeling, joint negotiation of text, and independent construction of text. Modeling the text involves the students to identify some aspects in writing such as the grammatical features, and generic structure of the text. This is the stage when the students analyze those aspects through reading the text. Singer and 16 Donlan state that this is a crucial stage in writing because in this reading stage the students will read to gain information and apply their knowledge to write 1980, p. 196. Most students fail to write because they cannot learn from the reading material. As a result, they cannot apply the knowledge in writing the text. In order to reduce failure in writing, the students should be independent to examine the elements of the text and identify the text organization. In the process of joint negotiation of the text, the teacher will demonstrate the correct organization of a text. The teacher may invite the students to share their understanding of the text organization. This process enables the teacher and the students to develop a text together. Developing a text can be in the form of reconstruction of a text. The last stage requires the students to apply the knowledge acquired from the previous stages to write a text independently. Tiedt suggests the teacher to serve the role as a facilitator by letting the students become involved in writing as the real writer 1989, p. 69. The teacher should give the students opportunity to decide the ideas to write. Before writing, the teacher may define the expectations, such as the topic, the length of the text, and the use of correct grammar and generic structure. 2.1.5 The Integration between Reading and Writing Reading and writing should be integrated by working on both skills simultaneously Nunan, 2003, p. 71. Since there is a connection between reading and writing, writing cannot be learned in isolation. Before the students write, they 17 need to gain knowledge about information organization from reading activity. If the students understand how the elements of coherence work in texts, they are more likely to use them appropriately to develop coherence in writing Lee, 2002, p. 35. Hyland 2002 says that the students not only need help in learning how to write, but also in understanding how texts are shaped 14. Thus, reading should precede writing process because it guides the students to analyze the structure of a text. Based on the writing curriculum, reading activity is put in the first stage. This modeling stage helps the students to identify how sentences and paragraphs are structured to create meaningful text. Reading task which can be applied to support identification is jumbled paragraphs Hyland, 2002, p. 114. Hyland believes that by arranging jumbled paragraphs, the students will reconstruct the text using their knowledge.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

Since there is a connection between reading and writing, writing cannot be learned in isolation. Before the students write, they need to gain knowledge about information organization from reading activity. This avoids the problem of organizing the information experienced by XA students in SMA Santo Mikael. Usually, the problem in organizing information appears because students tend to focus on word recognition. In reading, students must first recognize words, phrases, and sentences. Goodman criticizes this strategy because he believes that 18 even though students are able to read the words, but they might have no comprehension of what they read as cited in Nunan, 2003, p.71. Naturally, students should be encouraged to explore features of written English rather than to learn about the language through reading Wallace, 2003, p. 57. In other words, reading should facilitate the students to use their language to gain knowledge in reading, not to learn the language elements, such as words, phrases, and grammars through reading. When the students read the text, they can analyze the organization of the text and use the knowledge to write their own texts. Thus, effective reading was employed in this research. The researcher employed arranging jumbled paragraphs as one form effective reading activity to improve their paragraph writing skills. This research employed top-down processing to support organization analysis. Reading activity which employed top-down processing would help XA students develop paragraph writing skill in terms of organization. In order to develop their information organization in writing, the first thing that was necessary to understand was the generic structure. The generic structure mastery enabled the students to organize information in each paragraph and connect a paragraph to another paragraph to create meaningful and well-ordered text. Therefore, the researcher implemented arranging jumbled paragraphs activity because the activity required the students to analyze and identify the generic structure. The process of identifying the information organization was expected to build the students’ concept of coherence. According to Lee, if students understand 19 how the elements of coherence work in texts, they are more likely to use them appropriately to develop coherence in writing 2002, p. 35. Therefore, the researcher implemented the arranging jumbled paragraphs activity to encourage the students identify how the sentences and paragraphs were connected to keep the text coherent. Besides learning how to maintain the coherence of the text, identifying the generic structure enabled the students to put the appropriate ideas in each paragraph based on the generic structure. This avoided the existence of irrelevant information in the paragraph because each generic structure contained certain information. As a result, the students would not misplace the ideas because they would not brainstorm all ideas in the paragraphs. Owing to the ideas limitation, the students needed to develop the topic sentence to control the organization. They would only put ideas which supported the topic sentence to develop the paragraph. Since the students needed to analyze the organization of a text, the teaching and learning activity was designed based on the writing curriculum. First, the teacher familiarized the students with a model of text. The students were expected to reorder a text. When they arranged the jumbled paragraphs of a text, they needed to analyze the organization of the text deeply. Thus, they would increase their awareness in using the pattern of organization to write a text. Since the students had to be independent in analyzing and imitating the model of text, the researcher employed guided writing process. The next stage, joint construction of text, was done by discussing the correct order of the text. The students practiced how to construct a text by