Adolescent risk taking as seen in James Joyce`s ``Eveline`` - USD Repository
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ADOLESCENT RISK TAKING AS SEEN IN JAMES JOYCE’S “EVELINE” AN UNDERGRADUATE THESISPresented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
CHARLI WELLY ROBERT S. MELIALA
Student Number: 034212071 Student Registration Number: 031002049
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ADOLESCENT RISK TAKING AS SEEN IN JAMES JOYCE’S “EVELINE” AN UNDERGRADUATE THESISPresented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
CHARLI WELLY ROBERT S. MELIALA
Student Number: 034212071 Student Registration Number: 031002049
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI In order to determine whether there is anything we can know with certainty,
we first have to doubt everything we know
(Descartes)
“
…but though that place I never gain.
Herein lies comfort my pain – I will be worthy of it.”
(Ella Wheeler Wilcox)
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For my family
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First of all, I would like to give my gratefulness for the almighty Jesus Christ for giving me the blessing, guidance, and love. The proper path is always given ahead of each step I take. I thank my beloved family for their endless support, prayer, concern, and love.
I give my deepest gratitude to my advisor Ni Luh Putu Rosiandani, S.S., M.Hum. and my co-advisor Drs. Hirmawan Wijanarka, M.Hum. for their advise, direction, opinion, and encouragement they have given to me during the completion of this study.
I thank my Blume for the support, Sony Tarigan, S.Th.K and Paulus Sihombing, S.Th.K, M.Psi. for their support and contribution in providing the resources required for this study. I am grateful for my colleagues in The Monophones, Das Mustang, Avngrs, Lens Club USD, and Media Sastra for the amazing acquaintance I have experienced these years. I also thank the staffs of Department of English Letters for the assistance during my study in Sanata Dharma University.
Charli Welly Robert S. Meliala
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TITLE PAGE ..................................................................................................... i
APPROVAL PAGE ........................................................................................... ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE ..................................................................................... iii
MOTTO PAGE …………................................................................................ iv
DEDICATION PAGE …………........................................................................ v
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH ............. vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................. vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................. ix
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... x
ABSTRAK .......................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION .....................................................................1 A. Background of the Study .....................................................................
1 B. Problem Formulation ...........................................................................
5 C. Objectives of the Study ........................................................................
5 D. Definition of Terms .............................................................................
6 CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ....................................................
7 A. Review of Related Studies ..................................................................
7 B. Review of Related Theories ...............................................................
9 1. Theory of Character and Characterization.......................................
9 2. Theory of Adolescence....................................................................
12 a. Adolescent Personality.................................................................
13 b. A Review on the Current Theories of Adolescent Risk Taking...
14 c. Theory on Adolescent Risk Taking..............................................
16 3. Theory of Planned Behavior.............................................................
18 4. The Relationship between Literature and Psychology.....................
21 C. Theoretical Framework .......................................................................
22 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY .................................................................
24 A. Object of the Study ............................................................................
24 B. Approach of the Study .......................................................................
25 C. Method of the Study ..........................................................................
26 CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS ..............................................................................
28 A. The Description of Eveline...................................................................
29 1. General Characteristics of Eveline……………………………….
29 2. An Unadjusted Adolescent……………………………………….
35 3. An Adolescent with a Risky Decision to Make…………………..
45 B. Eveline’s Risk Taking in her Decision Making Process......................
45 1. Identifying Alternatives Choices....................................................
46 2. Identifying the Consequences that Follow each Choice................
46 3. Evaluating the Desirability of each Consequence..........................
48 4. Assesing the Likelihood of each Consequence..............................
50 5. Combining all the Information According to a Decision Rule.......
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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI C. Factors that Influence Eveline’s Behavior in Risk Taking...................
53 1. Attitude toward the Behavior.........................................................
55 2. Subjective Norm............................................................................
55 3. Perceived Behavioral Control.........................................................
57 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION .......................................................................
63 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..............................................................................................
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ABSTRACT
CHARLI WELLY ROBERT S. MELIALA. Adolescent Risk Taking as Seen in
James Joyce’s “Eveline”. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of
Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2011.Through reading literature, it is possible for the readers to make development of their life without having great deal of experience. The idea about how readers could absorb knowledge and understanding about their everyday life by reading literary works inspires the writer to study the psychology of a character in a literary work as a manner of understanding the psychology of human being in the real life. The literary work chosen to be analyzed in this study is one of James Joyce’s short stories titled “Eveline”. The work portrays the situation of an adolescent girl in her risk taking in decision making process.
The problem formulations that would be analyzed in this study are (1) how Eveline is described in the story, (2) how Eveline’s risk taking in her decision making process is, and (3) what are the factors that influence Eveline’s behavior in risk taking.
To do the analysis, the writer did several steps. First, the writer conducted a close reading on the short story to get a deeper understanding about the topic and the problems formulated above. The next step was finding supporting data and theories from books, articles, journals, other studies on the work, internet references, and encyclopedias as secondary references. The next step was analyzing the work by applying those related theories. After answering the problems, the writer drew a conclusion from the study.
The analysis produces some results and findings. Firstly, the main character is an unadjusted adolescent who is so vulnerable. Secondly, the main character shows an instability in risk taking in the decision making process. The unadjusted characteristics of the main character cause the instability in her risk taking in decision making process. Thirdly, there are several factors that affect the main character’s behavior in risk taking in decision making process; attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control. From all of these factors, her actual perceived behavioral control, Derevaun Seraun, influences her decision to withdraw the behavior. From the whole of this study it can be learned that it is possible for the readers to absorb knowledge about how do adolescents perform in risk taking and what are the factors that may affect their behavior from reading literary works. There is another important finding from this study; that literary works can precede other major of study in providing knowledge. James Joyce’s “Eveline” (1914) was published long before Fischoff’s behavioral decision-making framework (1992) and Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior (1985). PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
ABSTRAK
CHARLI WELLY ROBERT S. MELIALA. Adolescent Risk Taking as Seen in
James Joyce’s “Eveline”. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra,
Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2011.Dari membaca karya sastra pembaca dapat mengembangkan hidup mereka tanpa harus memiliki banyak pengalaman. Pendapat tentang bagaimana pembaca dapat menyerap pengetahuan dan pemahaman tentang kehidupan sehari-hari mereka dari membaca karya sastra mengilhami penulis untuk meneliti psikologi karakter dalam suatu karya sastra sebagai sebuah media pemahaman psikologi manusia dalam kehidupan nyata. Karya sastra terpilih yang telah dianalisa dalam penelitian ini merupakan salah satu dari cerita pendek karangan James Joyce berjudul “Eveline”. Karya tersebut menggambarkan keadaan seorang gadis remaja dan pengambilan resiko yang diambilnya dalam membuat keputusan.
Rumusan masalah yang akan dianalisa dalam penelitian ini adalah (1) bagaimana Eveline dideskripsikan dalam cerita tersebut, (2) bagaimana pengambilan resiko Eveline dalam pengambilan keputusannya (3) apa saja faktor- faktor yang mempengaruhi perilaku Eveline dalam pengambilan resiko.
Penulis mengambil beberapa langkah untuk melakukan analisa. Pertama, penulis membaca cerita pendek tersebut dengan seksama untuk mendapat pemahaman mendalam tentang topic dan masalah-masalah yang telah dirumuskan diatas. Langkah berikutnya adalah pencarian data pendukung dan teori-teori dari berbagai buku, artikel, jurnal, penelitian lainnya terhadap kerya tersebut, refrensi dari internet, dan ensiklopedia sebagai referensi sekunder. Langkah brikutnya adalah menganalisa karya tersebut menggunakan teori-teori terkait. Setelah menjawab semua rumusan masalah, penulis menarik kesimpulan dari penelitian ini.
Analisa tersebut menunjukkan beberapa hasil dan penemuan. Pertama, tokoh utama merupakan tipe remaja unadjusted yang sangat rapuh. Kedua, tokoh utama menunjukkan ketidakstabilan dalam pengambilan resiko dalam pengambilan keputusan. Karakteristik unadjusted yang dimiliki oleh tokoh utama menyebabkan ketidakstabilan dalam pengambilan resiko tersebut. Ketiga, ada beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi tokoh utama dalam pengambilan resiko; pendirian terhadap perilaku, norma subjektif, dan kontrol perilaku yang diterima. Dari semua faktor tersebut, kontrol perilaku aktual yang diterimanya, Derevaun
Seraun , mempengaruhi tokoh utama untuk menolak perilaku tersebut. Dari
keseluruhan penelitian ini dapat diketahui bahwa mungkin bagi para pembaca untuk mendapat pengetahuan tentang perilaku remaja dalam pengambilan resiko dan faktor-faktor apa saja yang mempengaruhi perilaku mereka dari membaca karya sastra. Penemuan penting lainnya dari penelitian ini adalah; karya sastra bias mendahului disiplin ilmu lainnya dalam memberikan pengetahuan. “Eveline” karangan James Joyce (1914) dipublikasikan jauh lebih dahulu dibanding kerangka pengambilan keputusan berbasis perilaku oleh Fischoff (1992) dan teori perilaku terencana oleh Ajzen (1985).
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study People generally associate an activity of reading literary works with an
activity of finding amusement. However, reading a literary work is not always about finding delight, pleasure and enjoyment. Besides as entertaining breaks from daily life, reading literary works can be an activity that gives the readers knowledge and understanding about life itself. Through reading literature, it is possible for the readers to make development of their life without having great deal of experience (Grace, 1965:7).
This development is possible when the readers absorb the knowledge about life by the emerging conflicts or problems in the literary works which are sometimes similar and comparable to the problems that appear in their real life. The readers also can learn and comprehend the characteristics of the characters in literary works. “Literature has a special value over other disciplines because it puts ideas in a human context” (Henkle, 1977:86).
The activity of reading literary works here surely would lead the readers to understand and learn about the special value that literature has. Generally, the center of the ideas in literary works is characters which are human beings. In order to make a deeper understanding about characters, I find it best to study the literary works from the psychological point of view because it is related to human being’s behavior pattern and unconscious mind.
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Rohrberger and Woods state that each character’s behavior in the literary works may refer to the psychology of human being (1971:3-13). So, the activities of reading literary works would lead the readers to understand not only the characteristics and the behavior of the characters but also the psychology of human beings in the real life.
Psychology itself is a very wide area of study. To narrow things down, I would like to study the psychology of the character in a chosen literary work.
Broadly speaking, the life of a human being as the object of the study of psychology is divided into some phases. These phases are named lifespan. The lifespan is divided into childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Hurlock in her book, Adolescent Development, states that adolescence is the most vulnerable phase among those phases in lifespan. Adolescence is a period of transition between childhood and adulthood. In this phase of life, an individual usually faces doubts, questions, worries and fears before the individual moves to the next adulthood stage. In this phase of change, an individual tends to have uncertain or conflicting feeling about something in life. During this transition, adolescent usually engaged in risky situations in decision making and often put themselves in trouble (1967:1-13).
The ideas of Grace and Henkle, about how readers could absorb knowledge and understanding about their everyday life by reading literatures inspires me to study the psychology of a character in a literary work as a manner of understanding the psychology of human being in the real life. I choose to study the transition period in human life; the adolescence.
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After searching for the most suitable work to be studied, I find that James Joyce works are interesting because most of his works are about ordinary people and their ordinary surroundings. William Harmon in his article “James Joyce” states that most of Joyce’s works deal with everyday life of people. This issue can be seen on his major works namely Dubliners (1914), A Portrait of the Artist as a
Young Man (1916) and Ulysses (1922). Because his works are able to present both
an individual interior consciousness and the individual’s exterior life, Joyce once remarked that “the extraordinary in the province of journalists”.
Harmon also states that James Joyce is one of the most important literary
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figures of the 20 century. James Joyce was a pioneer and a model for authors who believed in free written expression. Most of Joyce’s works feature creative, imaginative and innovative language. Joyce gives a revolutionary innovation to prose writing techniques in his works.
th Dubliners
- is Joyce’s first prose work. It is about the everyday life in 20 century Dublin. Joyce wrote Dubliners as a representation of the people of Irish at his time. Dubliners is a book which consists of fifteen short stories that focuses on the life of sad people who live in old city of Dublin. Those fifteen short stories can be classified into three general groups which are childhood, adolescence, and adulthood
Until today James Joyce is best known for his writing technique which uses stream of consciousness, a literary technique which reveals character’s feeling, thoughts, and actions without commentary by the author, that tries to
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picture the natural and sometimes the irrational flow of thoughts and feelings in a person’s mind (1996:2-3).
“Eveline” is one of the stories about adolescence in Dubliners. By reading the work I could notice the reasons why Joyce’s works have been given such great appreciations. The story is not about how someone struggles or dies for love or about the fight between good and evil. It is beyond those ordinary love stories or fairy tales. Eveline’s heart is already won by Frank and they are about to leave to their new life and their new home at Buenos Ayres. It is a story about a girl named Eveline who is trying to endure her tiring life.
Joyce’s creative, imaginative and innovative language in prose writing portrays both Evelin’s individual interior consciousness and her individual’s exterior life. Joyce portrays feeling, thoughts, and actions of a nineteen-year-old girl with the decision she has to make and the risks she has to take. The remarkable thing is how the main character, who is still a nineteen-year-old girl with doubts, questions, worries and fears, faces such risky decision in her transition phase.
Understanding adolescent behavior in risk taking is never an easy thing to do. According to Baruch Fischoff, who is a pioneer in research on adolescent risk taking, there could be many values which affect the behavior, such as emotional and social factors. And when the understanding of the behavior is taken into the social and emotional context, there can be no simple answer.
“Eveline”, as one of the portraits of adolescence in Joyce’s Dubliners, comes as an interesting work for me to be studied. For better understanding of
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adolescent behavior in risk taking, I want to observe more about the life of an adolescent named Eveline with doubts, questions, worries, fears, and risky decision with Adolescent Risk Taking as Seen in James Joyce’s “Evelyn” as the title of the thesis.
B. Problem Formulation
Based on the background of the study, the problems that I would like to discuss are formulated as follows:
1. How is Eveline described in the story?
2. How is Eveline’s risk taking in her decision making process?
3. What are the factors that influence Evelin’s behavior in risk taking?
C. Objectives of the Study
The aim of this study is to give answers to the questions that have been formulated in the problem formulation. The objective of the study based on the problem formulation is to find out how Eveline is described in the story, to find how Eveline’s risk taking in her decision making process is. These objectives of the study are used to make the next objective of this study, which is to find out about what the factors that influence Eveline’s behavior and how those factors influence her behavior in risk taking are easier to be answered. Over all of those objectives, the main purpose of this study is for better understanding of adolescent behavior in risk taking by analyzing the chosen literary work using the psychological approach.
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D. Definition of Terms
In this section, I would like to define some terms that need to be explained to provide better understanding for the readers of what will be analyzed in this study and to avoid misunderstanding on certain terms used in this study:
1. Adolescence Adolescence is a stage of maturation between childhood and adulthood.
The term denotes the period from the beginning of puberty to maturity; it usually starts at about age 14 until 19 in males and age 12 until 20 in females. The transition to adulthood varies among cultures, but it is generally defined as the time when individuals begin to function independently of their parents (Jones, 2006: 1). 2 . Decision Making
Decision making can be regarded as the mental processes resulting in the selection of a course of action among several alternatives. Every decision making process produces a final choice. The output can be an action or an opinion of choice (Kahneman, 2000:18).
3. Risk Taking Undertaking a task involving a challenge for achievement or a desirable goal in which there is a lack of certainty or a fear of failure. It may also include the exhibiting of certain behaviors whose outcomes may present a risk to the individual or to those associated with him or her (http://www.pri.org/science/science-behind-making-decisions1407.html). necessary to provide reviews about the related studies and theories before doing the analysis. Following are reviews of related studies, review of related theories and the theoretical framework of this study.
James Augustine Aloysius Joyce is well known for pioneering new narrative techniques, especially stream-of-consciousness, and experimenting with the uses of language. It is amazing that most of his work creates a new thing in the language itself especially when he is trying to write in other languages. He is also a leading figure for freedom in writing. In other words, James Joyce is known as
…a pioneer and a model for authors who believed in free written expression. Most of his works feature inventive language, and many of them have been criticized for being too obscure in their references or too blunt in their descriptions of intimate matters, including sexual activity. His writing evolved steadily from adolescent lyrics to precise vignettes to bold combinations of autobiography and satire. Most of his works deal with everyday life in 20th-century Dublin. Joyce once remarked that “the extraordinary is the province of journalists,” and most of his writings concentrate on ordinary people, objects, and places. (Harmon, 2006: 1) “Eveline”, which was first published in a compiled book titled Dubliners in 1914 as a short story, has a unique main character. “Eveline” is the only story which tells us about adolescence life among four stories in the “youth” part of the book, except the minor character named Polly Mooney in “the boarding house”.
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CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW In response to the problems discussed in the previous chapter, it is
A. Review of Related Studies
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Eveline is a character who is facing a dilemmatic situation in her life as a 19 years old girl. The unstable emotion and personality of a girl with a hard and complex life during her adolescence can be seen clearly through the story. She is a unique personality which is able to change in a sudden situation.
Joyce's classification of the quartet beginning with "Eveline" and ending with "The Boarding House" as stories of "adolescence" seems patently problematic. At 19, Eveline is technically "adolescent"; however, the central characters of the other three stories in this quartet - "after the Race," "Two Gallants," and "The Boarding House"-are hardly adolescents, unless we associate "adolescent" with "unsettled," or "unmarried." In the last of the quartet there is an adolescent, Polly Mooney, who is the same age as Eveline - 19 (Ingersoll, 1993).
In the work we can also see how the concept of a better life for the people
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of Dublin during the early 20 century. For them travelling overseas or moving eastward is associated with a better new life.
Like many of the stories in Dubliners, moving eastward in "Eveline" is associated with new life. But for Eveline, sailing eastward with Frank is as much an escape as a promise of something better. From the story's opening, she is passive and tired (46) and remembers old neighbors like "the Waters" who have since escaped east "to England" (47) (Ingersoll, 1993).
Petrus Hendra Widyantoro in his undergraduate thesis titled
Representation of Irish Postcolonialist through the Characterization of Eveline in
James Joyce’s “Eveline” finds the representation of Irish postcolonoalist in the
thearly 20 century in the story. The study sees the characteristics of Eveline in the
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story as a portrait of ideal Irish postcolonialist in the early 20 century. Also, the study finds that the portrayal of Eveline is an encouragement for Irish women to struggle against colonial power and Union Government of England and Ireland for the unfair treatment and law (2006:54-56)
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However, this thesis is not about the conception of better life, nor about the comparison of the story with the other short stories on the Dubliners, nor
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about the character as a representation of ideal post-colonialist in the early 20 century in Dublin, but about observing Eveline behavior in risk taking as an adolescent.
A. Review of Related Theories
This part contains theories used to answer the problems that have been formulated in the problem formulation. The theories are theory of character and characterization as the part of theories of literature, theory of adolescent personality, theory on adolescent risk taking, and the theory of planned behavior, as part of theories of psychology, and also theory about the relation between literature and psychology.
1. Theory of Character and Characterization
Among many elements that construct prose works – theme, setting, plot, and point of view – character is one of the most essential aspects in prose. The theory of character is needed in the analysis, since there will be some discussions which are related to the character. In his book, A Glossary of Literary Terms, M.H. Abrams identifies a character as:
A character may remain essentially “stable”, or unchanged in his outlook and dispositions, from beginning to the end of the work, or he may undergo a radical change, either through a gradual development or as a result of an extreme crisis (1981: 20).
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The first is the author merely presents his character talking and acting then leaves the reader to infer what motives and disposition lay behind what they say or do.
The second is the author himself intervenes in order to describe and often to evaluate, the motives and dispositional qualities of his characters (1981: 21).
Both character presented in a dramatic and a narrative work can be revealed in many ways. The simplest one is by naming. In analyzing the characters through their names the reader can gain clues to know who they are. The other way to reveal the characters is by describing their physical appearance and moral or psychological natures in detail in addition to analyze their manner, gesture or saying (Wellek and Warren, 1962: 219).
Meanwhile, Rohrberger and Woods in Reading and Writing about
Literature define the characterization as “the process by which an author creates a
character, the devices by which he make us believe a character is like particular person he is” (1971: 20).
Another expert, M. J. Murphy (1970:161-173) in his book Understanding
the Unseen states that there are some ways in n which an author attempts to make
his characters understandable to and alive for his reader, namely:
a. Personal description Personal description is a way that the author uses this way to describe a person's appearance and cloth.
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b. Character as seen by another Character as seen by another is a way that is used by the author to describe a character through the eyes and opinions of another, instead of describing a character directly.
c. Speech Speech is the way an author gives the reader an insight into the character of one of the person in the book through what the person says. Whenever he speaks, involves in conversation with other, or gives opinion, he is actually giving the reader some clues to his character.
d. Past Life Past life is used when a person's past life can be a clue for the reader to shape the character. This can be done by the direct comment by the author, the person's thought, his conversation, or through the medium of another person.
e. Conversation with other Conversation with others is employed when a person's character can be seen through the conversation of other people or through the things that they say about him. People talk about other and the things they say often give a clue to the character of the person spoken about.
f. Reaction Reaction can be a way that the author uses to give the reader a clue to a person's character by letting the readers know how that person reacts to various situations and events.
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g. Direct Comment Direct comment is the way the author describes a person's character through a direct comment. The author directly describes the character through the narrator’s eyes.
h. Thoughts Thought is a way that the author uses by giving the reader direct knowledge of what a person is thinking about. In this matter, an author is able to do what his reader cannot do in real life. i. Mannerism Mannerism means that the author can describe a person’s mannerism or habits which may also tell us something about his character.
2. Theory on Adolescence
Michele D. Kipke in Risks and Opportunities: Synthesis of Studies on
Adolescence states that adolescence is one of the most fascinating and complex
transitions in the life span. It is a time for an individual’s self-discovery, a time of expanding horizons, and emerging independence; a time of metamorphosis from childhood to adulthood. The beginning of adolescence is associated with biological, physical, behavioral, and social transformations. According to her this is an important phase of life that shapes an individual’s life (1999:7-8). Kipke also divided adolescence into three developmental phases.
Early adolescence encompasses the biological changes of puberty as well as sexual and psychological awakening, extending roughly from ages 10 through 14. Middle adolescence is a time of increased autonomy and
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experimentation, covering ages 15 to 17. Late adolescence can stretch from age 18 to 20s (1999:8).
a. Adolescent Personality
In order to understand more about Evelin’s personality as an adolescent, theory on adolescent personality is necessary to do this research. Havighrust and Taba in their book Adolescent Character and Personality mention that the adolescent personality can be differentiated into five groups named the Self- Directive Person, the Adaptive Person, the Submissive Person, the Defiant Person, and the unadjusted Person (1966: 117). Havighrust and Taba explanation about the five personality types of adolescent in their book Adolescent Character and
Personality are presented as follows:
i. The self-directive person The self directive person is conscientious, orderly, and persistent. He sets high standards for himself and is seldom satisfied with his performance. He is ambitious, strong-willed, and self sufficient, yet characterized by self-criticism and self-doubt (1966: 124). ii. The adaptive person
The adaptive person is sociable, friendly, vivacious, and outgoing in manner. He has what is often called good “social intelligence”. Usually he is good looking and has great physical vitality. Though he enjoys leadership, he does not strive hard for it. He fits readily into almost any social situation and seems to conform naturally to the expectations of the people with whom he is associated (1966: 134)
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iii. The submissive person The submissive person is one who will not initiate action. He waits for others to take the lead. He never shows signs of overt aggression and rarely of convert aggression. He lives by authority (1966: 146). iv. The defiant person
The defiant person is openly hostile to society. He shows his hostility by refusing to conform to social expectation. Because he has been neglected or mistreated by making any constructive adjustment to his age mates, to his family, or to a job. He is definitely a maladjusted individual (1966: 158). v. The unadjusted person
The unadjusted person is discontented, insecure, frustrated; usually he is having difficulties with his family. However, he is not openly hostile to society or definitely maladjusted as is the Defiant Person. He is actively but as yet unsuccessfully seeking to establish a satisfactory relationship with his environment (1966: 165).
b. A Review on the Current Theories of Adolescent Risk Taking
Before moving on to the more specific theories on adolescence risk taking, it is necessary to take a look at how research on adolescent risk taking fits into the larger scheme of judgment and decision making research. In the earlier phase, adolescence may emerge as physical changes as adolescents go through puberty.
However these phases are not just physical changes. Nowadays scientists and thinkers sees that during these phases, adolescents also experiences emotional
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changes as they seek greater independence from their parents, search for acceptance by peers, and begin to act new adult-like role in society. For most of adolescents, these changes are accompanied by the negotiation of new and inconsistent demands and pressures, the exploration of original and unique ideas and risky behaviors, involvement in more complex tasks, and the development of distinct identities (Kipke, 1999:1).
Lots of scientists and thinkers have done research on the study of decision making and been awarded Nobel prizes for their work. Their research mostly focused on risk and uncertainty (Reina and Rivers, 2008:1-2).
Risk taking research is usually conducted with adult people with everyday risk taking or with people for whom risk is part of their job description; insures, stock traders, emergency-room physicians, race car drivers, military and political leaders, and others. However, it is possible to conduct research on adolescent risk taking. There are two possible approaches to doing research which are basic science and applied science (Reina and Rivers, 2008:2).
Reina and Rivers in their article “Current Theories of Risk and Rational Decision Making” mention that there are five current theories on adolescent risk taking. They are Behavioral Decision Making Framework, Prototype-Willingness Model, Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Framework, Developmental Social Neuroscience Framework, and Fuzzy-Trace Theory (2008:2-7). This research uses Behavioral Decision Making Framework because this applied science theory provides a clear-eyed analysis of the components in adolescent risk taking.
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c. Theory of Adolescent Risk Taking
Baruch Fischhoff is an inheritor of the dominant expectancy-value approach in judgment and decision making. He is also a pioneer in research on adolescent risky decision making. In this issue he makes a convincing argument for the behavioral decision making framework, emphasizing evaluation of decision-making competence and providing a clear-eyed analysis of the components of this competence. Conducting a research using the components of the behavioral decision making framework could describe a great variety of decisions. The components here are how to assess subjective probabilities (what adolescents believe) and values (what adolescents want or prefer) (Reyna and Rivers, 2008:2-3).
According to this theory, all behaviors of adolescent can be analyzed as the outcome of a process that involves; (1) Indentifying alternative choices, (2) Indentifying the consequences that follow each choice, (3) Evaluating the desirability of each consequence, (4) Assessing the likelihood of each possible consequence, (5) Combining all this information according to a decision rule (Steinberg, 2002:86). Fischhoff gives an example of how these components work, an adolescent girl who is trying to decide whether to accept a ride home from a party with friends who had been drinking would;
1. Indentifying alternative choices: to accept the ride or not
2. Indentifying the consequences that follow each choice: “If I accept the ride, and we get into an accident, I could be seriously hurt”; “If I don’t accept the ride, my friend will make fun of me for being a loser”
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3. Evaluating the desirability of each consequence: “Appearing like a loser to my friends is bad, but being in an accident would be terrible”
4. Assessing the likelihood of each possible consequence: “My friends probably won’t change their opinion of me just because I turn down the ride and my friend who is driving is so drunk that he really might get into an accident”
5. Combining all this information according to a decision rule: “All things considered, I think I won’t take the ride” (Steinberg, 2002, 86-87). This following figure shows what this adolescent girl decision making process looks like according to behavioral decision theory.
Possible Consequences Impact Impact on health on Image Dollar cost Enjoyment
Accident Very Very Event
Negative Negative Major Negative Node Decision Arrive Safely Node Take ride None Positive None Positive Decline ride Be understood
None Neutral Minor Positive Be criticized None Negative Minor Negative
FIGURE 1: risk taking in decision making process from the perspective of behavioral decision theory
Fischhoff states that although subjective probabilities and values form the basic building blocks of behavioral decision-making framework, it is also important to consider how social and emotional factors can have influences on behavior via this framework. He discusses how framework accommodates
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multiple factors–and more factors could be added–that possibly influence adolescent risk-taking, as he concludes, “From a behavioral decision research perspective, there can be no simple answer” (Reyna and Rivers, 2008:2).
3. Theory of Planned Behavior
According to B. C Marcoux and J. T. Shope, in their research about adolescent use and misuse of alcohol titled “Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior to Adolescent Use and Misuse of Alcohol”, predicting and explaining adolescent behavior in all its complexity is a difficult task to do. There have been many researches attempted to explain the behavior. However, it can be approached by using Icek Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior. Theory of Planned Behavior predicts and explains adolescent behavior by observing the environmental factors, social attitude, and personality traits that affects the psychological process of the behavior (http://her.oxfordjournals.orgcontent123323.full.pdf).
Theory of Planned Behavior is an extended model of Fishbein and Ajzen’s Theory of Reasoned Action. In 1985 Icek Ajzen by himself proposed that human behavior can be predicted and explained by observing the environmental factors, social attitude, and personality traits that affects the psychological process of the behavior. He published a theory to deal with those factors in the framework of the Theory of Planned Behavior. It is designed to explain human behavior in specific context in relation with the factors that affect it. Figure 2 depicts the theory in the form of structural diagram (1991:11).
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