electoral management design 2014
Electoral Management
Design
Revised Edition
Electoral Management
Design
Revised Edition
Helena Catt
Andrew Ellis
Michael Maley
Alan Wall
Peter Wolf
International IDEA’s resources on electoral processes
Handbook Series
The International IDEA Handbook Series seeks to present comparative analysis, information and insights on a
range of democratic institutions and processes. Handbooks are aimed primarily at policymakers, politicians,
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© International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance 2014
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ISBN: 978-91-87729-66-9
Foreword
he world entered the third millennium with 140 countries holding multiparty
elections, which represents a historic shift in the nature and proile of political
participation.
Since then, the democratic world has expanded further; new states have resulted
from socio-political movements for individual freedom. Many of these new
states are still struggling to establish viable democratic governance systems and
structures to fulil their citizens’ aspirations.
Sustaining the process of democratization is more challenging in the least
developed and developing countries, which face pervasive poverty, multiethnic
conlicts and social tensions between the powerful and powerless. Countries
that are economically rich yet poor in other human development indicators are
another diicult category to deal with.
Many present-day democracies are called representative democracies, in which
people elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. In some, the
electoral management system itself is under pressure, if not direct attack, and
in need of immunity and insulation. Competitive elections, in addition to being
expensive and wasteful, are increasingly being manipulated by political parties,
propaganda machines and clever demagoguery; they need healthy, constructive
debates on public policy.
Election managers thus continuously face formidable challenges to keep
the electoral system functional and provide a level playing ield for everyone,
and struggle to retain their autonomy and integrity.
he larger issue is making democratic systems and processes work for all four
principles: popular control, political equality, constitutional governance and
individual freedom. his revised and updated publication is relevant in this
context. If meticulously followed and intelligently implemented, its guiding
principles can keep the electoral oversight and regulatory agencies in strategic
itness and failsafe condition against undue pressure and motivated interference.
his publication focuses on how electoral management bodies (EMBs) can
protect their autonomy, exercise management control, safeguard integrity,
maintain transparency, ensure eicacy, and professionally implement rules and
procedures while keeping the system voter friendly. From registering eligible
voters to counting votes and declaring results, the pathways of election managers
are full of risks that require competencies and high-order skills. I am sure that
III
EMBs and their stafs will ind this document useful, and that it will help improve
the professional and efective management of the complex electoral process.
Dr. S.Y. Quraishi
Former chief election commissioner, India
IV
Preface
International IDEA´s vision is to be the primary global actor in sharing
comparative knowledge and experience in support of democracy, and aims to
make this knowledge and experience available to inspire national dialogue and
catalyse political will.
Electoral frameworks, including the choice of electoral system and the design
of electoral administration, determine both the outcomes and the credibility
of electoral processes and thereby trust in democracy. he development of
professional electoral administration is not merely a technical and managerial
issue, but a process that crucially engages political stakeholders who have their
own interests and objectives. Its role in the overall development and strengthening
of democracy cannot be overstated.
his Handbook brings together a core global comparative knowledge base
on the design, establishment, financing, training and assessment of electoral
management bodies. he irst edition was published in 2006 and has since
formed the basis of training materials and online tools; it is one of International
IDEA´s most popular knowledge resources and it has been translated into several
languages.
Much has happened since the publication of the irst edition of this handbook.
New electoral management bodies (EMBs) have been formed, old ones have been
revised in response to allegations of fraud and corruption, the role of technology
in elections is much more prevalent, the ield of professional development for
EMB members and staf has grown, and progress in the ield of gender and
elections has been made. It is therefore time to publish a revised edition, with
the most relevant sections updated and expanded, current country-level data and
several new case studies which will help highlight the diversity, creativity and
innovations in the ield of electoral management globally.
he Handbook will be a valuable resource for everyone involved or interested in
the strength and legitimacy of their electoral process.
Yves Leterme
Secretary-General
International IDEA
V
Contents
Foreword........................................................................................................................................ III
Preface .......................................................................................................................................... V
Contents ......................................................................................................................................... VI
Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................................................................................... XIV
Introduction...................................................................................................................................
1
Chapter 1. Who Organizes Elections? .....................................................................................
What Is an EMB? ..................................................................................................................
Three Models of Electoral Management .........................................................................
The Independent Model of Electoral Management ...........................................................
The Governmental Model of Electoral Management .........................................................
The Mixed Model of Electoral Management......................................................................
What Can Be Expected of EMBs under
the Different Electoral Management Models? ...............................................................
EMBs Attributes under the Three Broad Models of Electoral Management ....................
Permanent and Temporary EMBs .....................................................................................
Centralized or Decentralized EMBs..................................................................................
EMBs in Federal Countries .................................................................................................
Transitional International EMBs and National EMBs ...................................................
Representation of the EMB before Cabinet and the Legislature ...............................
Some Guiding Principles for All EMBs .............................................................................
Independence .......................................................................................................................
Impartiality ...........................................................................................................................
Integrity ................................................................................................................................
Transparency ....................................................................................................................... .
Efficiency ............................................................................................................................. .
Professionalism ................................................................................................................... .
Service-mindedness ........................................................................................................... .
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
10
12
12
17
18
18
19
21
21
22
23
23
24
24
24
25
Chapter 2. The Legal Framework: The Context for an EMB’s Role and Powers ...........
How Legal Instruments Deine Electoral Processes ................................................... .
International and Regional Treaties and Agreements ................................................. .
The Constitution................................................................................................................... .
Electoral Laws: Acts and Ordinances ............................................................................. .
EMB Rules, Regulations and Proclamations ................................................................. .
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
43
43
45
46
49
50
52
Chapter 3. The Powers, Functions and Responsibilities of an EMB................................
Powers and Functions ........................................................................................................ .
Extent of Powers, Functions and Responsibilities ....................................................... .
Direct Democracy Instruments ........................................................................................... .
Functional Divisions between Electoral Institutions ......................................................... .
Boundary Delimitation ........................................................................................................ .
Voter Registration.................................................................................................................
73
73
75
77
77
78
79
VI
5
5
6
7
7
8
Registration and Funding of Political Parties .................................................................
Election Campaigns ..............................................................................................................
Voter Education and Information ......................................................................................
Validation of Election Results ............................................................................................
Electoral Observation ..........................................................................................................
International Activities........................................................................................................
Electoral Dispute Resolution ..............................................................................................
EMB Responsibilities as a Public Organization .............................................................
Avoidance of Conlicts of Interest .......................................................................................
EMB Responsibilites to Promote Democracy and Equity ............................................
Gender Balance ....................................................................................................................
Ethnicity ................................................................................................................................
Broad-based Access ............................................................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
80
81
82
84
84
84
85
85
86
87
87
90
91
92
Chapter 4. The Composition, Roles and Functioning of an EMB ......................................
EMB Membership .................................................................................................................
Status of EMB Members .....................................................................................................
The EMB Chair: A Special Role? ........................................................................................
EMB Members: Respected Experts or Watchdogs for Each Other? ........................
Multiparty-based EMBs ......................................................................................................
Expert-based EMBs .............................................................................................................
EMBs with Both Expert and Multiparty Membership ..................................................
Full-time or Part-time EMB Members? ............................................................................
How Many EMB Members? ................................................................................................
Term of Ofice of Members of Permanent EMBs ...........................................................
Recruitment and Appointment of EMB Members .........................................................
Recruitment Through Open Advertisement ........................................................................
Appointment of EMB Members ..........................................................................................
Qualiications for Appointment..........................................................................................
Conditions of Service and Security of Tenure for EMB Members .............................
Oath/Pledge-taking or Afirmation ...................................................................................
Internal Regulations .............................................................................................................
EMB Decision-making Processes .....................................................................................
Meetings of EMB Members................................................................................................
Closed or Open EMB Meetings ...........................................................................................
EMB Member Committees..................................................................................................
EMB Members’ Relationships with the EMB Secretariat ...........................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
107
107
108
109
110
110
111
112
112
114
114
116
116
117
118
121
122
122
123
124
124
125
125
126
Chapter 5. Planning and Implementing EMB Activities .....................................................
The EMB Secretariat ...........................................................................................................
The EMB Secretariat and the Public Service .................................................................
Structuring the Secretariat ................................................................................................
Organizational Structure Charts .......................................................................................
145
145
146
148
149
VII
How to Develop an Organizational Chart............................................................................
Model Secretariat Structures .............................................................................................
Strategic Planning ................................................................................................................
Operational Planning............................................................................................................
The Electoral Calendar ........................................................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
150
150
152
158
159
164
Chapter 6. The Development of Professional Electoral Management ............................
Use of Public Service Staff for EMB Secretariats ........................................................
Permanent and Temporary Staff .......................................................................................
Employment Conditions: EMB-Speciic or Public Service Staff ................................
Staff Pensions .......................................................................................................................
Career Patterns of Professional Electoral Oficers ......................................................
Procedures for Recruiting EMB Staff ..............................................................................
Procedures for the Appointment of EMB Secretariat Staff ........................................
Staff Training and Development ........................................................................................
EMB Organizational and Staff Development for Permanent Staff....................................
Using International Experience ...........................................................................................
Mentoring .............................................................................................................................
Education and Development Courses for EMB Staff .........................................................
Operational Training .............................................................................................................
Training Methods .................................................................................................................
Cascade Training ..................................................................................................................
Training by Mobile Teams ....................................................................................................
Simultaneous Training .........................................................................................................
Training Materials .................................................................................................................
Instructions...........................................................................................................................
Training Manuals..................................................................................................................
Simulations and Videos .......................................................................................................
Factors that May Inhibit EMB Professionalism .............................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
177
178
179
179
180
180
180
182
183
183
185
185
186
187
187
188
188
188
189
189
189
189
190
191
Chapter 7. The Financing of EMBs ...........................................................................................
Common EMB Financing Issues ........................................................................................
What Electoral Costs Need to be Financed? ..................................................................
Who Finances EMBs and How? ........................................................................................
State or Public Funding ........................................................................................................
Method of Disbursing State Funding ..................................................................................
Integrated or Distributed Electoral Budgets .......................................................................
Donor Funding ......................................................................................................................
Other Sources of EMB Funding ...........................................................................................
Budget Formulation Methods for EMBs ..........................................................................
Budget Formulation and Approval Process ........................................................................
Availability of Budget Funds ................................................................................................
207
207
208
210
210
210
210
210
212
212
214
215
VIII
Control of EMB Funding .......................................................................................................
EMB Procurement Policies and Procedures ..................................................................
EMB Financial Control Measures......................................................................................
Asset Management ..............................................................................................................
Records Management..........................................................................................................
Principles of EMB Financial Management ......................................................................
Transparency ........................................................................................................................
Efficiency and Effectiveness ...............................................................................................
Integrity ...............................................................................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
215
216
217
218
218
219
219
219
220
220
Chapter 8. Stakeholder Relationships ....................................................................................
Who are the Stakeholders and What Is Their Role in the Electoral Process? ........
Primary Stakeholders ......................................................................................................... .
Political Parties and Candidates .........................................................................................
EMB Staff .............................................................................................................................
The Executive Branch .........................................................................................................
The Legislature.....................................................................................................................
Electoral Dispute Resolution Bodies ...................................................................................
Judicial Bodies .....................................................................................................................
Election Monitors/Certification Teams
and Citizen and International Election Observers ..............................................................
Traditional Media .................................................................................................................
Social Media ........................................................................................................................
The Electorate ......................................................................................................................
Civil Society Organizations ..................................................................................................
The Donor Community and Electoral Assistance Agencies ...............................................
Secondary Stakeholders .....................................................................................................
EMB Suppliers ......................................................................................................................
The Public at Large...............................................................................................................
Regional and International Networks .................................................................................
Maintaining Relationships With Stakeholders ..............................................................
How To Deal With Dificult Stakeholders ........................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
229
229
229
230
231
231
232
233
234
Chapter 9. Electoral Technology ..............................................................................................
Elections Technology in Recent Decades ......................................................................
Types and Main Features of Elections Technology .......................................................
Selected ICT Concepts with Impact on Elections Technology ...................................
ICT Innovation Cycles and their Relation to the Electoral Cycle ........................................
The ‘Bathtub Curve’ and Electoral Cycles...........................................................................
Total Cost of Ownership of ICT Systems ............................................................................
ICT Security and Costs ........................................................................................................
Election Technology Vendors .............................................................................................
257
257
257
259
259
259
261
262
262
234
235
236
236
237
238
238
238
239
239
239
242
243
IX
Needs-driven Approach .......................................................................................................
Procurement .........................................................................................................................
Vendor Lock ..........................................................................................................................
Open Source vs. Proprietary Systems.................................................................................
Commercial Off-the-shelf Systems vs. Customized System Development.......................
Voter Education and Public Information ..........................................................................
Training and Expertise .........................................................................................................
Administrative and Operational Objectives ....................................................................
Maintaining EMB Oversight ................................................................................................
Accountability and Integrity ................................................................................................
Focus on the Whole Electoral Process ...............................................................................
Inclusiveness ........................................................................................................................
Sustainability of Donor-funded Technology .......................................................................
Selecting Appropriate Technology ......................................................................................
Issues of Electronic Voter Registration ...........................................................................
A Brief Background of Electronic Voting and Vote-counting Systems ....................
System Requirements, Certification and Audits ................................................................
Voter Verified Paper Audit Trails .........................................................................................
Costs ....... ............................................................................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
263
263
263
264
264
265
265
266
266
266
267
267
267
268
268
269
270
271
271
272
Chapter 10. Assessing EMB Performance .............................................................................
Why is EMB Accountability Important? ..........................................................................
Principles and Best Practices for EMB Accountability ...............................................
Stakeholder Accountability ................................................................................................
Consultation and Communication .....................................................................................
Performance Accountability ..............................................................................................
Internal Performance Accountability ..................................................................................
External Performance Accountability .................................................................................
Financial Accountability......................................................................................................
Internal Financial Accountability.........................................................................................
External Financial Accountability........................................................................................
Accountability for the Use of Technology-based Systems .........................................
EMB Assessment Mechanisms .........................................................................................
Internal Quality Controls......................................................................................................
Auditing EMBs .....................................................................................................................
Performance Audits .............................................................................................................
Financial Audits....................................................................................................................
Programme Evaluation by EMBs .........................................................................................
Peer Reviews........................................................................................................................
External Oversight Issues ....................................................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
285
285
285
286
286
286
286
287
288
288
289
290
290
290
291
292
294
295
298
299
299
X
Chapter 11. EMB Sustainability ...............................................................................................
What Is Sustainability? .......................................................................................................
Why Is EMB Sustainability Important?............................................................................
Needs Assessment...............................................................................................................
Electoral Sustainability and Donor Support ...................................................................
Practices Favouring Sustainability ...................................................................................
Stafing for Sustainability ...................................................................................................
Ofice Systems ......................................................................................................................
Electoral Materials ...............................................................................................................
Structural and Technological Sustainability Implications ...........................................
Electoral Systems ................................................................................................................
Electoral Boundary Delimitation .........................................................................................
Voter Registration ................................................................................................................
The Polling Process ..............................................................................................................
Automated Voting and Counting Processes ...................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
313
313
314
314
316
318
318
319
320
321
322
322
322
323
325
326
Chapter 12. EMB Networks .......................................................................................................
What Are Electoral Networks and Why Do They Matter? ..........................................
National Electoral Networks ..............................................................................................
Regional EMB Networks .....................................................................................................
Global Electoral Networks ..................................................................................................
Electoral Support Networks...............................................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
343
343
343
344
346
347
347
Chapter 13. Reforming Electoral Processes..........................................................................
What Is Electoral Reform? ..................................................................................................
Failing EMBs ..........................................................................................................................
The EMB’s Role in Electoral Reforms ...............................................................................
The Scope of Electoral Reform ..........................................................................................
Managing Electoral Change ...............................................................................................
Risks Associated with Electoral Reform .........................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
365
365
367
368
369
372
372
373
Annexes
World Survey: Electoral Management Bodies in 217 Countries and Territories ..........
Electoral Management Glossary ..............................................................................................
References and Further Reading..............................................................................................
EMB Websites and Social Media Platforms ..........................................................................
About the Authors .......................................................................................................................
Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................................
About International IDEA ...........................................................................................................
374
396
409
414
426
434
435
Index ............................................................................................................................................... 436
XI
Tables
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Table 8
Table 9
Table 10
Table 11
Table 12
Table 13
Table 14
Table 15
Table 16
Table 17
Table 18
Figures
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
XII
Characteristics of the Three Broad Models of Electoral Management
and their Component EMBs..................................................................................
What an EMB under the Independent Model Is, May Be and Is Not ..........
What an EMB under the Governmental Model Is, May Be, and Is Not.......
Examples of Attributes of EMBs under
Mixed Model Electoral Management .................................................................
Advantages and Disadvantages of
the Three Different Electoral Management Models .......................................
Advantages and Disadvantages of Assigning
Some Electoral Functions to Institutions Other than the EMB ....................
Advantages and Disadvantages of Multiparty,
Expert and Combined EMBs.................................................................................
Number of Members in a Selection of Party-based
and Expert-based EMBs as of 2012 ....................................................................
Some Advantages and Disadvantages of Open Advertising for
Members of EMBs ..................................................................................................
Qualiications Stated in the Electoral Law for Appointment to
Two Reformed Expert-based EMBs: South Sudan and Bhutan ...................
The Policymaking and Implementation Components
of the Three Models of Electoral Management ...............................................
Possible Advantages and Disadvantages of
Using Public Servants as EMB Secretariat Staff ............................................
Attributes and Examples of Electoral Core, Diffuse and Integrity Costs ...
Some Key Advantages and Disadvantages of International Donor
Funding for Electoral Processes .........................................................................
Election Performance Audit: Criteria and Issues ............................................
Possible Performance Audit Findings and Recommendations.....................
The Botswana Post-election Review 2004: Terms of Reference.................
EMB Post-election Review Cycle Checklist .....................................................
Characteristics of the Three Broad Models of Electoral Management
and their Component EMBs..................................................................................
The Electoral Cycle ................................................................................................
Organizational Structure of the South African
Independent Electoral Commission ....................................................................
Organizational Structure of the Afghan EMB...................................................
Organizational Structure of the New Zealand Electoral Commission ........
Organizational Structure of Electoral Management in Costa Rica .............
Organizational Structure of Electoral Management in Tonga ......................
Extract from the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC)
Strategic Plan, 2009–14 ........................................................................................
9
11
13
14
20
78
113
115
116
120
145
147
209
212
293
294
297
298
10
16
153
154
155
156
157
160
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Boxes
Box 1
Box 2
Box 3
The Elections Calendar for the 2011 Presidential, Parliamentary
and Local Elections in Zambia .............................................................................
National Assembly Elections Calendar, Bhutan, 2013 ....................................
Stakeholder Engagement – Statement of Principles ......................................
How ICT Equipment Has Evolved Between Elections ....................................
The Bathtub Curve .................................................................................................
162
163
240
260
261
Checklist for Electoral Management Legal Framework ................................. 51
The Indian Code of Conduct for Use of Oficial Resources
for Electoral Purposes ........................................................................................... 82
Some Important Steps toward Developing Electoral Administration
as a Profession ........................................................................................................ 187
Case Studies
Republic of Seychelles................................................................................................................
Mexico ............................................................................................................................................
Cambodia .......................................................................................................................................
Afghanistan ...................................................................................................................................
Costa Rica......................................................................................................................................
Armenia ..........................................................................................................................................
Nigeria ............................................................................................................................................
Norway ...........................................................................................................................................
Senegal...........................................................................................................................................
Republic of Korea .........................................................................................................................
Liberia .............................................................................................................................................
Timor-Leste ...................................................................................................................................
Tonga ..............................................................................................................................................
United States ................................................................................................................................
Tunisia ............................................................................................................................................
Kenya ..............................................................................................................................................
United Kingdom ............................................................................................................................
Bosnia and Herzegovina.............................................................................................................
Ukraine ...........................................................................................................................................
Haiti .................................................................................................................................................
India ................................................................................................................................................
27
32
54
61
93
98
128
137
165
171
192
200
222
245
250
273
302
328
335
349
358
XIII
Acronyms and Abbreviations
A-WEB
ACEEEO
AEA
AEC
AEOBiH
ANFREL
AU
BCEN
BEC
BED
BiH
BON
BRIDGE
CAA
CEC
CEMC
CENA
CEO
CEP
CNE
CNRA
CNRV
ConEC
CORE
CPP
CSO
CTA
CTCEP
CTV
DEC
DRE
EAC
EBDC
EC
ECC
ECF
ECI
XIV
Association of World Election Bodies
Association of European Election Oicials
Association of Electoral Administrators (UK)
Australian Electoral Commission
Association of Election Oicials in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Asian Network for Free Elections
African Union
National Oice of Electoral Disputes (Haiti)
Bureau Electoral Communal (Haiti)
Bureau Electoral Déparemental (Haiti)
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Broadcasting Organisation of Nigeria
Building Resources in Democracy, Governance and Elections
Constitutional Appointments Authority (Seychelles)
Central Election Commission (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Russia,
Armenia, Ukraine)
Central Election Management Council
Commission Electorale Nationale Autonome
(National Autonomous Electoral Commission) (Senegal)
chief electoral oicer
Conseil Electoral Provisoire (Haiti)
National Elections Commission (Timor-Leste)
Conseil National de Regulation de l’Audiovisuel
(National Council for the Regulation of TV and Radio) (Senegal)
Commission Nationale de Recensement des Votes
(National Commission for the Tallying of the Votes) (Senegal)
Constituency Electoral Commissions (Armenia)
Cost of Registration and Elections (Project)
Cambodian People’s Party
civil society organization
chief technical advisor
Transitional College of the Permanent Electoral Council (Haiti)
Centre de Tabulation de Vote (Vote Tabulation Centre) (Haiti)
District Election Commission (Ukraine)
direct recording electronic (system)
Election Assistance Commission (USA)
Election Broadcasting Debate Commission (South Korea)
Election Commission (Bosnia and Herzegovina, South Korea,
Seychelles)
Electoral Complaints Commission (Afghanistan)
Electoral Commissions’ Forum (of SADC countries), also
Electoral Commission of the Federation (Nigeria)
Election Commission of India
ECK
ECOWAS
EISA
ELECT
EMB
ERC
EVM
FCT
FEC
FPTP
FUNCINPEC
Electoral Commission of Kenya
Economic Community of West African States
Electoral Institute of Southern Africa
Enhancing Electoral and Legal Capacity for Tomorrow (Afghanistan)
electoral management body
Electoral Reform Committee (Nigeria)
electronic voting machine
Federal Capital Territory (Nigeria)
Federal Election Commission (United States)
First Past he Post
Front Uni National pour un Camobdge Indépendant, Neutre, Paciique,
et Coopératif (United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful and
Cooperative Cambodia)
FYROM
Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
GEO
Global Electoral Organization
HAVA
Help America Vote Act (United States)
ICCPR
International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights
ICT
information and communications technology
IDEA
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance
IEBC
Independent Electoral Boundaries Commission (Kenya)
IEC
Independent Election (or Electoral) Commission
(Afghanistan, Timor-Leste, Botswana)
IEIS
integrated election information system
IENDC
Internet Election News Deliberation Commission (South Korea)
IFE
Federal Electoral Institute (Mexico)
IFES
International Foundation for Electoral Systems
IIEC
Interim Independent Electoral Commission (Kenya)
INE
National Electoral Institute (Mexico)
INEC
Independent National Electoral Commission (Nigeria)
IOM
International Organization for Migration
IREC
Independent Review Committee (Kenya)
ISAF
International Security Assistance Force (Afghanistan)
ISIE
Independent High Authority for Elections (Tunisia)
IT
information technology
JEMB
Joint Electoral Management Body (Afghanistan)
LEMNA
Law on the Election of the Members of the National Assembly (Cambodia)
MINUSTAH United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti
NCTR
National Commission of Television and Radio (Armenia)
NEB
National Electoral Board (Riksvalgstyret) (Norway)
NEC
National Election Committee (Cambodia)
National Election Commission (Liberia, Nigeria, South Korea)
NGO
non-governmental organization
OAS
Organization of American States
XV
OCV
ODIHR
OMR
ONI
OSCE
OSD
PEC
PEO
PIANZEA
PPLC
PR
REC
RS
SADC
SIEC
SRP
SRSG
STAE
SVR
TCO
TSE
UK
UN
UNAMA
UNDP
UNEAD
UNIORE
UNOPS
USAID
VVPAT
XVI
out-of-country voting
Oice for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (OSCE)
optical mark recognition
National Identiication Oice (Haiti)
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
organizational and staf development
Design
Revised Edition
Electoral Management
Design
Revised Edition
Helena Catt
Andrew Ellis
Michael Maley
Alan Wall
Peter Wolf
International IDEA’s resources on electoral processes
Handbook Series
The International IDEA Handbook Series seeks to present comparative analysis, information and insights on a
range of democratic institutions and processes. Handbooks are aimed primarily at policymakers, politicians,
civil society actors and practitioners in the ield. They are also of interest to academia, the democracy
assistance community and other bodies.
© International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance 2014
International IDEA publications are independent of speciic national or political interests. Views expressed in
this publication do not necessarily represent the views of International IDEA, its Board or its Council members.
The map(s) presented in this publication does not imply on the part of the Institute any judgement on the legal
status of any territory or the endorsement of such boundaries, nor does the placement or size of any country or
territory relect the political view of the Institute. The map is created for this publication in order to add clarity
to the text.
Applications for permission to reproduce or translate all or any part of this publication should be made to:
International IDEA
Strömsborg
SE-103 34 Stockholm
Sweden
International IDEA encourages dissemination of its work and will promptly respond to requests for permission
to reproduce or translate its publications.
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Commons Attribute-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Licence. You are free to copy, distribute and transmit
the publication as well as to remix and adapt it provided it is only for non-commercial purposes, that you
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Graphic design by: Pernilla Ottenfelt Eliasson
Cover Design by: Pernilla Ottenfelt Eliasson
Cover illustration: © Jing Jing Tsong c/o theispot.com
Printed by: Bulls Graphics, Sweden
ISBN: 978-91-87729-66-9
Foreword
he world entered the third millennium with 140 countries holding multiparty
elections, which represents a historic shift in the nature and proile of political
participation.
Since then, the democratic world has expanded further; new states have resulted
from socio-political movements for individual freedom. Many of these new
states are still struggling to establish viable democratic governance systems and
structures to fulil their citizens’ aspirations.
Sustaining the process of democratization is more challenging in the least
developed and developing countries, which face pervasive poverty, multiethnic
conlicts and social tensions between the powerful and powerless. Countries
that are economically rich yet poor in other human development indicators are
another diicult category to deal with.
Many present-day democracies are called representative democracies, in which
people elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. In some, the
electoral management system itself is under pressure, if not direct attack, and
in need of immunity and insulation. Competitive elections, in addition to being
expensive and wasteful, are increasingly being manipulated by political parties,
propaganda machines and clever demagoguery; they need healthy, constructive
debates on public policy.
Election managers thus continuously face formidable challenges to keep
the electoral system functional and provide a level playing ield for everyone,
and struggle to retain their autonomy and integrity.
he larger issue is making democratic systems and processes work for all four
principles: popular control, political equality, constitutional governance and
individual freedom. his revised and updated publication is relevant in this
context. If meticulously followed and intelligently implemented, its guiding
principles can keep the electoral oversight and regulatory agencies in strategic
itness and failsafe condition against undue pressure and motivated interference.
his publication focuses on how electoral management bodies (EMBs) can
protect their autonomy, exercise management control, safeguard integrity,
maintain transparency, ensure eicacy, and professionally implement rules and
procedures while keeping the system voter friendly. From registering eligible
voters to counting votes and declaring results, the pathways of election managers
are full of risks that require competencies and high-order skills. I am sure that
III
EMBs and their stafs will ind this document useful, and that it will help improve
the professional and efective management of the complex electoral process.
Dr. S.Y. Quraishi
Former chief election commissioner, India
IV
Preface
International IDEA´s vision is to be the primary global actor in sharing
comparative knowledge and experience in support of democracy, and aims to
make this knowledge and experience available to inspire national dialogue and
catalyse political will.
Electoral frameworks, including the choice of electoral system and the design
of electoral administration, determine both the outcomes and the credibility
of electoral processes and thereby trust in democracy. he development of
professional electoral administration is not merely a technical and managerial
issue, but a process that crucially engages political stakeholders who have their
own interests and objectives. Its role in the overall development and strengthening
of democracy cannot be overstated.
his Handbook brings together a core global comparative knowledge base
on the design, establishment, financing, training and assessment of electoral
management bodies. he irst edition was published in 2006 and has since
formed the basis of training materials and online tools; it is one of International
IDEA´s most popular knowledge resources and it has been translated into several
languages.
Much has happened since the publication of the irst edition of this handbook.
New electoral management bodies (EMBs) have been formed, old ones have been
revised in response to allegations of fraud and corruption, the role of technology
in elections is much more prevalent, the ield of professional development for
EMB members and staf has grown, and progress in the ield of gender and
elections has been made. It is therefore time to publish a revised edition, with
the most relevant sections updated and expanded, current country-level data and
several new case studies which will help highlight the diversity, creativity and
innovations in the ield of electoral management globally.
he Handbook will be a valuable resource for everyone involved or interested in
the strength and legitimacy of their electoral process.
Yves Leterme
Secretary-General
International IDEA
V
Contents
Foreword........................................................................................................................................ III
Preface .......................................................................................................................................... V
Contents ......................................................................................................................................... VI
Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................................................................................... XIV
Introduction...................................................................................................................................
1
Chapter 1. Who Organizes Elections? .....................................................................................
What Is an EMB? ..................................................................................................................
Three Models of Electoral Management .........................................................................
The Independent Model of Electoral Management ...........................................................
The Governmental Model of Electoral Management .........................................................
The Mixed Model of Electoral Management......................................................................
What Can Be Expected of EMBs under
the Different Electoral Management Models? ...............................................................
EMBs Attributes under the Three Broad Models of Electoral Management ....................
Permanent and Temporary EMBs .....................................................................................
Centralized or Decentralized EMBs..................................................................................
EMBs in Federal Countries .................................................................................................
Transitional International EMBs and National EMBs ...................................................
Representation of the EMB before Cabinet and the Legislature ...............................
Some Guiding Principles for All EMBs .............................................................................
Independence .......................................................................................................................
Impartiality ...........................................................................................................................
Integrity ................................................................................................................................
Transparency ....................................................................................................................... .
Efficiency ............................................................................................................................. .
Professionalism ................................................................................................................... .
Service-mindedness ........................................................................................................... .
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
10
12
12
17
18
18
19
21
21
22
23
23
24
24
24
25
Chapter 2. The Legal Framework: The Context for an EMB’s Role and Powers ...........
How Legal Instruments Deine Electoral Processes ................................................... .
International and Regional Treaties and Agreements ................................................. .
The Constitution................................................................................................................... .
Electoral Laws: Acts and Ordinances ............................................................................. .
EMB Rules, Regulations and Proclamations ................................................................. .
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
43
43
45
46
49
50
52
Chapter 3. The Powers, Functions and Responsibilities of an EMB................................
Powers and Functions ........................................................................................................ .
Extent of Powers, Functions and Responsibilities ....................................................... .
Direct Democracy Instruments ........................................................................................... .
Functional Divisions between Electoral Institutions ......................................................... .
Boundary Delimitation ........................................................................................................ .
Voter Registration.................................................................................................................
73
73
75
77
77
78
79
VI
5
5
6
7
7
8
Registration and Funding of Political Parties .................................................................
Election Campaigns ..............................................................................................................
Voter Education and Information ......................................................................................
Validation of Election Results ............................................................................................
Electoral Observation ..........................................................................................................
International Activities........................................................................................................
Electoral Dispute Resolution ..............................................................................................
EMB Responsibilities as a Public Organization .............................................................
Avoidance of Conlicts of Interest .......................................................................................
EMB Responsibilites to Promote Democracy and Equity ............................................
Gender Balance ....................................................................................................................
Ethnicity ................................................................................................................................
Broad-based Access ............................................................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
80
81
82
84
84
84
85
85
86
87
87
90
91
92
Chapter 4. The Composition, Roles and Functioning of an EMB ......................................
EMB Membership .................................................................................................................
Status of EMB Members .....................................................................................................
The EMB Chair: A Special Role? ........................................................................................
EMB Members: Respected Experts or Watchdogs for Each Other? ........................
Multiparty-based EMBs ......................................................................................................
Expert-based EMBs .............................................................................................................
EMBs with Both Expert and Multiparty Membership ..................................................
Full-time or Part-time EMB Members? ............................................................................
How Many EMB Members? ................................................................................................
Term of Ofice of Members of Permanent EMBs ...........................................................
Recruitment and Appointment of EMB Members .........................................................
Recruitment Through Open Advertisement ........................................................................
Appointment of EMB Members ..........................................................................................
Qualiications for Appointment..........................................................................................
Conditions of Service and Security of Tenure for EMB Members .............................
Oath/Pledge-taking or Afirmation ...................................................................................
Internal Regulations .............................................................................................................
EMB Decision-making Processes .....................................................................................
Meetings of EMB Members................................................................................................
Closed or Open EMB Meetings ...........................................................................................
EMB Member Committees..................................................................................................
EMB Members’ Relationships with the EMB Secretariat ...........................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
107
107
108
109
110
110
111
112
112
114
114
116
116
117
118
121
122
122
123
124
124
125
125
126
Chapter 5. Planning and Implementing EMB Activities .....................................................
The EMB Secretariat ...........................................................................................................
The EMB Secretariat and the Public Service .................................................................
Structuring the Secretariat ................................................................................................
Organizational Structure Charts .......................................................................................
145
145
146
148
149
VII
How to Develop an Organizational Chart............................................................................
Model Secretariat Structures .............................................................................................
Strategic Planning ................................................................................................................
Operational Planning............................................................................................................
The Electoral Calendar ........................................................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
150
150
152
158
159
164
Chapter 6. The Development of Professional Electoral Management ............................
Use of Public Service Staff for EMB Secretariats ........................................................
Permanent and Temporary Staff .......................................................................................
Employment Conditions: EMB-Speciic or Public Service Staff ................................
Staff Pensions .......................................................................................................................
Career Patterns of Professional Electoral Oficers ......................................................
Procedures for Recruiting EMB Staff ..............................................................................
Procedures for the Appointment of EMB Secretariat Staff ........................................
Staff Training and Development ........................................................................................
EMB Organizational and Staff Development for Permanent Staff....................................
Using International Experience ...........................................................................................
Mentoring .............................................................................................................................
Education and Development Courses for EMB Staff .........................................................
Operational Training .............................................................................................................
Training Methods .................................................................................................................
Cascade Training ..................................................................................................................
Training by Mobile Teams ....................................................................................................
Simultaneous Training .........................................................................................................
Training Materials .................................................................................................................
Instructions...........................................................................................................................
Training Manuals..................................................................................................................
Simulations and Videos .......................................................................................................
Factors that May Inhibit EMB Professionalism .............................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
177
178
179
179
180
180
180
182
183
183
185
185
186
187
187
188
188
188
189
189
189
189
190
191
Chapter 7. The Financing of EMBs ...........................................................................................
Common EMB Financing Issues ........................................................................................
What Electoral Costs Need to be Financed? ..................................................................
Who Finances EMBs and How? ........................................................................................
State or Public Funding ........................................................................................................
Method of Disbursing State Funding ..................................................................................
Integrated or Distributed Electoral Budgets .......................................................................
Donor Funding ......................................................................................................................
Other Sources of EMB Funding ...........................................................................................
Budget Formulation Methods for EMBs ..........................................................................
Budget Formulation and Approval Process ........................................................................
Availability of Budget Funds ................................................................................................
207
207
208
210
210
210
210
210
212
212
214
215
VIII
Control of EMB Funding .......................................................................................................
EMB Procurement Policies and Procedures ..................................................................
EMB Financial Control Measures......................................................................................
Asset Management ..............................................................................................................
Records Management..........................................................................................................
Principles of EMB Financial Management ......................................................................
Transparency ........................................................................................................................
Efficiency and Effectiveness ...............................................................................................
Integrity ...............................................................................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
215
216
217
218
218
219
219
219
220
220
Chapter 8. Stakeholder Relationships ....................................................................................
Who are the Stakeholders and What Is Their Role in the Electoral Process? ........
Primary Stakeholders ......................................................................................................... .
Political Parties and Candidates .........................................................................................
EMB Staff .............................................................................................................................
The Executive Branch .........................................................................................................
The Legislature.....................................................................................................................
Electoral Dispute Resolution Bodies ...................................................................................
Judicial Bodies .....................................................................................................................
Election Monitors/Certification Teams
and Citizen and International Election Observers ..............................................................
Traditional Media .................................................................................................................
Social Media ........................................................................................................................
The Electorate ......................................................................................................................
Civil Society Organizations ..................................................................................................
The Donor Community and Electoral Assistance Agencies ...............................................
Secondary Stakeholders .....................................................................................................
EMB Suppliers ......................................................................................................................
The Public at Large...............................................................................................................
Regional and International Networks .................................................................................
Maintaining Relationships With Stakeholders ..............................................................
How To Deal With Dificult Stakeholders ........................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
229
229
229
230
231
231
232
233
234
Chapter 9. Electoral Technology ..............................................................................................
Elections Technology in Recent Decades ......................................................................
Types and Main Features of Elections Technology .......................................................
Selected ICT Concepts with Impact on Elections Technology ...................................
ICT Innovation Cycles and their Relation to the Electoral Cycle ........................................
The ‘Bathtub Curve’ and Electoral Cycles...........................................................................
Total Cost of Ownership of ICT Systems ............................................................................
ICT Security and Costs ........................................................................................................
Election Technology Vendors .............................................................................................
257
257
257
259
259
259
261
262
262
234
235
236
236
237
238
238
238
239
239
239
242
243
IX
Needs-driven Approach .......................................................................................................
Procurement .........................................................................................................................
Vendor Lock ..........................................................................................................................
Open Source vs. Proprietary Systems.................................................................................
Commercial Off-the-shelf Systems vs. Customized System Development.......................
Voter Education and Public Information ..........................................................................
Training and Expertise .........................................................................................................
Administrative and Operational Objectives ....................................................................
Maintaining EMB Oversight ................................................................................................
Accountability and Integrity ................................................................................................
Focus on the Whole Electoral Process ...............................................................................
Inclusiveness ........................................................................................................................
Sustainability of Donor-funded Technology .......................................................................
Selecting Appropriate Technology ......................................................................................
Issues of Electronic Voter Registration ...........................................................................
A Brief Background of Electronic Voting and Vote-counting Systems ....................
System Requirements, Certification and Audits ................................................................
Voter Verified Paper Audit Trails .........................................................................................
Costs ....... ............................................................................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
263
263
263
264
264
265
265
266
266
266
267
267
267
268
268
269
270
271
271
272
Chapter 10. Assessing EMB Performance .............................................................................
Why is EMB Accountability Important? ..........................................................................
Principles and Best Practices for EMB Accountability ...............................................
Stakeholder Accountability ................................................................................................
Consultation and Communication .....................................................................................
Performance Accountability ..............................................................................................
Internal Performance Accountability ..................................................................................
External Performance Accountability .................................................................................
Financial Accountability......................................................................................................
Internal Financial Accountability.........................................................................................
External Financial Accountability........................................................................................
Accountability for the Use of Technology-based Systems .........................................
EMB Assessment Mechanisms .........................................................................................
Internal Quality Controls......................................................................................................
Auditing EMBs .....................................................................................................................
Performance Audits .............................................................................................................
Financial Audits....................................................................................................................
Programme Evaluation by EMBs .........................................................................................
Peer Reviews........................................................................................................................
External Oversight Issues ....................................................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
285
285
285
286
286
286
286
287
288
288
289
290
290
290
291
292
294
295
298
299
299
X
Chapter 11. EMB Sustainability ...............................................................................................
What Is Sustainability? .......................................................................................................
Why Is EMB Sustainability Important?............................................................................
Needs Assessment...............................................................................................................
Electoral Sustainability and Donor Support ...................................................................
Practices Favouring Sustainability ...................................................................................
Stafing for Sustainability ...................................................................................................
Ofice Systems ......................................................................................................................
Electoral Materials ...............................................................................................................
Structural and Technological Sustainability Implications ...........................................
Electoral Systems ................................................................................................................
Electoral Boundary Delimitation .........................................................................................
Voter Registration ................................................................................................................
The Polling Process ..............................................................................................................
Automated Voting and Counting Processes ...................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
313
313
314
314
316
318
318
319
320
321
322
322
322
323
325
326
Chapter 12. EMB Networks .......................................................................................................
What Are Electoral Networks and Why Do They Matter? ..........................................
National Electoral Networks ..............................................................................................
Regional EMB Networks .....................................................................................................
Global Electoral Networks ..................................................................................................
Electoral Support Networks...............................................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
343
343
343
344
346
347
347
Chapter 13. Reforming Electoral Processes..........................................................................
What Is Electoral Reform? ..................................................................................................
Failing EMBs ..........................................................................................................................
The EMB’s Role in Electoral Reforms ...............................................................................
The Scope of Electoral Reform ..........................................................................................
Managing Electoral Change ...............................................................................................
Risks Associated with Electoral Reform .........................................................................
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................
365
365
367
368
369
372
372
373
Annexes
World Survey: Electoral Management Bodies in 217 Countries and Territories ..........
Electoral Management Glossary ..............................................................................................
References and Further Reading..............................................................................................
EMB Websites and Social Media Platforms ..........................................................................
About the Authors .......................................................................................................................
Acknowledgements.....................................................................................................................
About International IDEA ...........................................................................................................
374
396
409
414
426
434
435
Index ............................................................................................................................................... 436
XI
Tables
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Table 8
Table 9
Table 10
Table 11
Table 12
Table 13
Table 14
Table 15
Table 16
Table 17
Table 18
Figures
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
XII
Characteristics of the Three Broad Models of Electoral Management
and their Component EMBs..................................................................................
What an EMB under the Independent Model Is, May Be and Is Not ..........
What an EMB under the Governmental Model Is, May Be, and Is Not.......
Examples of Attributes of EMBs under
Mixed Model Electoral Management .................................................................
Advantages and Disadvantages of
the Three Different Electoral Management Models .......................................
Advantages and Disadvantages of Assigning
Some Electoral Functions to Institutions Other than the EMB ....................
Advantages and Disadvantages of Multiparty,
Expert and Combined EMBs.................................................................................
Number of Members in a Selection of Party-based
and Expert-based EMBs as of 2012 ....................................................................
Some Advantages and Disadvantages of Open Advertising for
Members of EMBs ..................................................................................................
Qualiications Stated in the Electoral Law for Appointment to
Two Reformed Expert-based EMBs: South Sudan and Bhutan ...................
The Policymaking and Implementation Components
of the Three Models of Electoral Management ...............................................
Possible Advantages and Disadvantages of
Using Public Servants as EMB Secretariat Staff ............................................
Attributes and Examples of Electoral Core, Diffuse and Integrity Costs ...
Some Key Advantages and Disadvantages of International Donor
Funding for Electoral Processes .........................................................................
Election Performance Audit: Criteria and Issues ............................................
Possible Performance Audit Findings and Recommendations.....................
The Botswana Post-election Review 2004: Terms of Reference.................
EMB Post-election Review Cycle Checklist .....................................................
Characteristics of the Three Broad Models of Electoral Management
and their Component EMBs..................................................................................
The Electoral Cycle ................................................................................................
Organizational Structure of the South African
Independent Electoral Commission ....................................................................
Organizational Structure of the Afghan EMB...................................................
Organizational Structure of the New Zealand Electoral Commission ........
Organizational Structure of Electoral Management in Costa Rica .............
Organizational Structure of Electoral Management in Tonga ......................
Extract from the Australian Electoral Commission (AEC)
Strategic Plan, 2009–14 ........................................................................................
9
11
13
14
20
78
113
115
116
120
145
147
209
212
293
294
297
298
10
16
153
154
155
156
157
160
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Boxes
Box 1
Box 2
Box 3
The Elections Calendar for the 2011 Presidential, Parliamentary
and Local Elections in Zambia .............................................................................
National Assembly Elections Calendar, Bhutan, 2013 ....................................
Stakeholder Engagement – Statement of Principles ......................................
How ICT Equipment Has Evolved Between Elections ....................................
The Bathtub Curve .................................................................................................
162
163
240
260
261
Checklist for Electoral Management Legal Framework ................................. 51
The Indian Code of Conduct for Use of Oficial Resources
for Electoral Purposes ........................................................................................... 82
Some Important Steps toward Developing Electoral Administration
as a Profession ........................................................................................................ 187
Case Studies
Republic of Seychelles................................................................................................................
Mexico ............................................................................................................................................
Cambodia .......................................................................................................................................
Afghanistan ...................................................................................................................................
Costa Rica......................................................................................................................................
Armenia ..........................................................................................................................................
Nigeria ............................................................................................................................................
Norway ...........................................................................................................................................
Senegal...........................................................................................................................................
Republic of Korea .........................................................................................................................
Liberia .............................................................................................................................................
Timor-Leste ...................................................................................................................................
Tonga ..............................................................................................................................................
United States ................................................................................................................................
Tunisia ............................................................................................................................................
Kenya ..............................................................................................................................................
United Kingdom ............................................................................................................................
Bosnia and Herzegovina.............................................................................................................
Ukraine ...........................................................................................................................................
Haiti .................................................................................................................................................
India ................................................................................................................................................
27
32
54
61
93
98
128
137
165
171
192
200
222
245
250
273
302
328
335
349
358
XIII
Acronyms and Abbreviations
A-WEB
ACEEEO
AEA
AEC
AEOBiH
ANFREL
AU
BCEN
BEC
BED
BiH
BON
BRIDGE
CAA
CEC
CEMC
CENA
CEO
CEP
CNE
CNRA
CNRV
ConEC
CORE
CPP
CSO
CTA
CTCEP
CTV
DEC
DRE
EAC
EBDC
EC
ECC
ECF
ECI
XIV
Association of World Election Bodies
Association of European Election Oicials
Association of Electoral Administrators (UK)
Australian Electoral Commission
Association of Election Oicials in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Asian Network for Free Elections
African Union
National Oice of Electoral Disputes (Haiti)
Bureau Electoral Communal (Haiti)
Bureau Electoral Déparemental (Haiti)
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Broadcasting Organisation of Nigeria
Building Resources in Democracy, Governance and Elections
Constitutional Appointments Authority (Seychelles)
Central Election Commission (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Russia,
Armenia, Ukraine)
Central Election Management Council
Commission Electorale Nationale Autonome
(National Autonomous Electoral Commission) (Senegal)
chief electoral oicer
Conseil Electoral Provisoire (Haiti)
National Elections Commission (Timor-Leste)
Conseil National de Regulation de l’Audiovisuel
(National Council for the Regulation of TV and Radio) (Senegal)
Commission Nationale de Recensement des Votes
(National Commission for the Tallying of the Votes) (Senegal)
Constituency Electoral Commissions (Armenia)
Cost of Registration and Elections (Project)
Cambodian People’s Party
civil society organization
chief technical advisor
Transitional College of the Permanent Electoral Council (Haiti)
Centre de Tabulation de Vote (Vote Tabulation Centre) (Haiti)
District Election Commission (Ukraine)
direct recording electronic (system)
Election Assistance Commission (USA)
Election Broadcasting Debate Commission (South Korea)
Election Commission (Bosnia and Herzegovina, South Korea,
Seychelles)
Electoral Complaints Commission (Afghanistan)
Electoral Commissions’ Forum (of SADC countries), also
Electoral Commission of the Federation (Nigeria)
Election Commission of India
ECK
ECOWAS
EISA
ELECT
EMB
ERC
EVM
FCT
FEC
FPTP
FUNCINPEC
Electoral Commission of Kenya
Economic Community of West African States
Electoral Institute of Southern Africa
Enhancing Electoral and Legal Capacity for Tomorrow (Afghanistan)
electoral management body
Electoral Reform Committee (Nigeria)
electronic voting machine
Federal Capital Territory (Nigeria)
Federal Election Commission (United States)
First Past he Post
Front Uni National pour un Camobdge Indépendant, Neutre, Paciique,
et Coopératif (United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful and
Cooperative Cambodia)
FYROM
Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
GEO
Global Electoral Organization
HAVA
Help America Vote Act (United States)
ICCPR
International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights
ICT
information and communications technology
IDEA
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance
IEBC
Independent Electoral Boundaries Commission (Kenya)
IEC
Independent Election (or Electoral) Commission
(Afghanistan, Timor-Leste, Botswana)
IEIS
integrated election information system
IENDC
Internet Election News Deliberation Commission (South Korea)
IFE
Federal Electoral Institute (Mexico)
IFES
International Foundation for Electoral Systems
IIEC
Interim Independent Electoral Commission (Kenya)
INE
National Electoral Institute (Mexico)
INEC
Independent National Electoral Commission (Nigeria)
IOM
International Organization for Migration
IREC
Independent Review Committee (Kenya)
ISAF
International Security Assistance Force (Afghanistan)
ISIE
Independent High Authority for Elections (Tunisia)
IT
information technology
JEMB
Joint Electoral Management Body (Afghanistan)
LEMNA
Law on the Election of the Members of the National Assembly (Cambodia)
MINUSTAH United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti
NCTR
National Commission of Television and Radio (Armenia)
NEB
National Electoral Board (Riksvalgstyret) (Norway)
NEC
National Election Committee (Cambodia)
National Election Commission (Liberia, Nigeria, South Korea)
NGO
non-governmental organization
OAS
Organization of American States
XV
OCV
ODIHR
OMR
ONI
OSCE
OSD
PEC
PEO
PIANZEA
PPLC
PR
REC
RS
SADC
SIEC
SRP
SRSG
STAE
SVR
TCO
TSE
UK
UN
UNAMA
UNDP
UNEAD
UNIORE
UNOPS
USAID
VVPAT
XVI
out-of-country voting
Oice for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (OSCE)
optical mark recognition
National Identiication Oice (Haiti)
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
organizational and staf development