Semantic Shifts Found In The Translated Version Of Rick Riordan’s Percy Jackson & The Olympians:The Titan’s Curse

8 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Overview of Translation

Generally, translation is a matter of transferring something from one language to another language. Terminologically, translation is derived from the word “translate” and suffix “–ion”. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (2000) defines translate or to translate as to give the meaning of something said or written into another language while –ion is a suffix which means forming nouns denoting the action of a verb (Martinus 2008:102). Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (1993) defines translation as a rendering from one language into another; a change to a different substance, form, or appearance. However, the definition or the concept of translation is not just limited to what we can find in dictionary. Further elaboration is needed to make it clearer.

Many experts and linguists give their own definitions about translation that can give a better explanation to the reader; for example, Brislin (1976:1) states,

“translation is a general term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language to another, whether the language is in written or oral form, whether the languages have established orthographies or not; or whether one or both languages are based on signs, as with signs of the deaf.” (Brislin, 1976:1)

According to Jiří Levý (in Venuti 2000:148), translation is a process of communication: the objective of translating is to impart the knowledge of the original to the foreign reader. He also states,

9 “from the point of view of the working situation of the translator at any

moment of his work (that is from the pragmatic point of view), translating is a decision process: a series of a certain number of consecutive situations – moves, as in a game – situations imposing on the translator the necessity of choosing among certain (and very often exactly definable) number of alternatives.” (Jiří Levý in Venuti, 2000:148)

Larson (1984:51) declares that translation is a text form in the SL is replaced by the text form in the TL. Another expert, Wilss, gives a long explanation about the definition of translation where he introduces three kinds of understanding in doing translation. He declares

“Translation is a transfer process which aims at the transformation of a written source language text (SLT) into an optimally equivalent target language text (TLT) and which require the syntactic, the semantic, and the pragmatic understanding and analytical processing of the source text. Syntactic understanding is related to style and meaning. Semantic understanding is meaning related activity. Finally, pragmatic understanding is related to the message or implication of a sentence.” (Wilss, 1982: 3)

This definition does not state what is transferred. Rather, it states the requirement of the process.

Nida and Taber (1982:12) see translating as a process of reproducing in the receptor language to the closest natural equivalent of the SL message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. In other words, translation is a transfer of meaning, message, and style from one SLT to the TLT. In the order of priority, style is put the last. Here the things to reproduce (transfer) are message. According to Nida and Taber, when translators translate or transfer some words from the SL into the TL; the closest meaning, equivalence, and natural form of SL is the necessity. Therefore, they suggest that the translators should concern about meaning first.

10 The definition of translation conveyed by Nida and Taber gives a new idea about translation that it deals with the meaning of what SL tries to imply and delivered it as clear as possible into the TL. It shows that translation with correct structure is useless without meaning. Larson (1984:3) states that translation means transferring the meaning of the source language into receptor language. Moreover, Newmark presents further view towards the transferring of meaning in a translation. He says (1988:5), “Translation is rendering the meaning of one text into another language in the way that the author meant the text”. Supporting Newmark’s idea about the definition of translation, Muchtar (2013:7) also says “Basically translation is transferring messages from SL to TL”.

Simatupang in his book Pengantar Teori Terjemahan also conveys the same idea about translation that it is about transferring the meaning in SL into TL. He states

“menerjemahkan adalah mengalihkan makna yang terdapat dalam bahasa sumber ke dalam bahasa sasaran dan mewujudkan kembali di dalam bahasa sasaran dengan bentuk-bentuk yang sewajar mungkin menurut aturan-aturan yang berlaku dalam bahasa sasaran. Jadi, yang

dialihkan adalah makna bukan bentuk” (Translating is to renderthe

meaningcontainedin the SLintothe TLandreflect it backinthe TLas natural as possiblein accordance withthe grammatical rulesapplicablein the TL. Therefore, what istransferredisnot a formbut meaning) (Simatupang, 2000:2)

In other words, he clearly states that translation is transferring meaning in SL into TL and restructuring the meaning into TL as natural as possible according to valid grammatical rules of TL. Hence, structure is not the one that is transferred, but meaning is.

However, translation is not only limited about transferring matter but it also deals with material replacement as what stated by Catford. He says (1965:20), “Translation is

11 the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)”. From this definition, Catford is inclined to emphasize on the equivalence of material replacement than concerns about transferring meaning.

Bell (1991:5) conveys the same idea about the equivalence in translation. He says, “Translation is the expression in another language (or the TL) of what has been expressed in another source, language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalence”. From this definition, he gives clear explanation and meaning about the concept of translation that translator as the subject who does the process of translation, must concern about the aspect of linguistic and style.

While those experts above are trying to define translation based on meaning and style, there are other experts that give another idea about translation. Hatim and Mason (1997:1) state that translation also deals with semantic and culture aspects. They assert that translating is as an act of communication which attempts to relay, across cultural and linguistic boundaries, another act of communication which may have been intended for different purposes and different readers or hearers.

That idea of translation is also supported by Kridalaksana, an Indonesian expert in translation theory. He (1983:128) declares that translation is transferring message among cultures or among languages in grammatical and lexical point by preserving the message, effect or structure as possible as it can be. In his book, he writes, “Terjemahan ialah pengalihan amanat antarbudaya dan/atau antarbahasa dalam tataran gramatikal dan leksikal dengan maksud, efek atau wujud yang sedapat mungkin tetap

ofinterculturaland/orinter-12 language at the level ofgrammaticalandlexicalby retaining its purpose, effectormanifestationas good as possible). In brief, he views translation as transferring message which across culture among languages.

As what has been explained above, it can be found there are so many definitions or concept of translation, buttosummarizeallthe definitionoftranslationbriefly and clearly, wecanseefromwhat is proposedby Beekman and Callow. They (in Silalahi 2012:11) state that penerjemahan adalah mengkomuni-kasikan satu pesan dari satu

bahasa ke bahasa yang berbeda. (Translation is to communicate one message from one

language to other different language). Of course, the last definition about translation proposed by Beckman and Callow embrace all the definition of translation explained by other experts above. The main purpose of translation is indeed to try to communicate what the SL tries to imply and deliver it in the TL.

Hence, based on those definitions above, it can be deduced that translation is about delivering one message from what has been written or spoken in the SL to TL without changing the real meaning; indeed, in the attempt to do that, concerning the equivalence and making the result sounded as natural as possible is prompted because as a good translator, it is expected to make a product of translation which does not look or sound like one. A good translator is the one who is invisible in the point of view of the readers. By means invisible is when a reader reads a product of translation, for example a translated novel, it must be looked as the real novel instead of a product of translation. In other words, the readers must be unaware of the existence of the translator in the product of translation as stated by Finlay (1974:2), “Ideally, the translation should give

13 the sense of the original in such a way that the reader is unaware that he is reading a translation”

2.2 Function of Translation

It is by now clear that translation means more than substitution of words in one language with those from another. In some ways it is the attempt to bring two cultures together, because as we all know, language and culture are two things that relate to each other. We cannot separate language with culture.

Based on the connection between language and culture, Kridalaksana (1983:128) declares that “Terjemahan ialah pengalihan amanat antarbudaya dan/atau antarbahasa dalam tataran gramatikal dan leksikal dengan maksud, efek atau wujud yang sedapat

mungkin tetap dipertahankan” (Translationisthe transfer ofthe mandate

ofinterculturaland/orinter-language at the level ofgrammaticalandlexicalby retaining its purpose, effectormanifestationas good as possible). Translation is transferring message among cultures or among languages in grammatical and lexical point by preserving the message, effect or structure as possible as it can be. In brief, he views translation as transferring message which across culture among languages. The definition by Kridalaksana clearly explains that translation is one of activity which tries to bring culture from one nation into another different culture of the nation.

Supporting Kridalaksana’s definition about translation related to the function of translation, Newmark (1988:10) states “Translation is now used as much to transit knowledge and to create understanding between groups and nations, as to transmit

14 culture.” This statement confirms that the function of translation is not only just to deliver one message of certain language to another language, but also to deal with the aspect of culture; thus, the message through which the real writer conveys would be directly sent to the reader without any misconception.

It is an accepted fact that one language is different with other language, not just in grammatical structure but also the way in which they conceptualize abstractions. The question of how to bridge the gap between SL and TL is decided by the aim of the translator and its intended reader; this is a perspective agreed upon by most theoreticians in the field. Venuti (2000:341) says that the basic issues in translation theory remain “equivalence and shifts, audience and function, identity and ideology”. Nida (2000:127) lists three basic factors that decide the nature of translation. They are: “the nature of the message to be translated, the purpose of the writer or translator, and the type of readership”.

Basically, translation functions as a medium of communications. As Nida states,

“Translation means communication because it has three essential elements to form a process of communication. The three essential elements are source, message, and receptor, and these elements must be found in all communication activities” (Nida, 1981:2)

In brief words, translation means inter-lingual communication by involving two different languages.

Moreover, Duff (1989:5) says, “As a process of communication, translation functions as the medium ‘across the linguistic and cultural barriers’ in conveying the messages written in the foreign languages”. In other words, the function of translation is

15 as a bridge, that is, to carry the messages (meanings) from the SL to the TL. Translation is very helpful for people to face a barrier in understanding a text written in a foreign language, for example.

There are identifiable contexts to which particular modes of translation are suitable. For example is as communication of information. In some cases, the content gets precedence over form. For instance, notices put up in airports or railway stations are bilingual, if not multilingual. Important notices that give information have to be in different languages in international airports where you have travelers from all parts of the world. Here the translation has to be such that it gives the meaning without any distortion. The same is true for manuals that come with appliances. In these cases, the translator might not be able to do a literal translation, as languages differ from each other in structure as well as semantics. But the emphasis is on the reader and the aim is to make the reader who does not know the other language, understand what is being said. This is very much a reader-oriented translation where the translator is completely submissive to the message that is to be communicated. The translator can safely claim that there is no loss in translation here or rather; he cannot afford loss in translation. In some cases sign language is used to avoid confusion.

This is quite common with traffic signals which are a universal language of sorts. Road signs are usually accompanied by pictures or signs that are universally understood. Here a semiotic system or sign language is utilized to overcome the potential hazards of not comprehending a road sign in another language. In other words this is a context where the translators cannot afford breakdown of communication or loss in translation.

16 They might have to make suitable changes in the word order or choose a word that might not be the literal equivalent of the original to make the message clear. What is significant here is that the aim of the translator is not just to pass on information but also to ensure that the readers have understood the message. The readers are kings in these forms of translation as the whole process is aimed at them.

2.3 Translation Process

According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (2000), process is a series of things that are done in order to achieve a particular result. In relation to process of translation, Larson says (1984:17), when translating a text; the aim of the translator is an idiomatic translation making each effort to communicate their meaning of the source text into the natural forms of the receptor language. In addition, he says that translation is concerned with a lexicon study, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the SLT, which is analyzed to determine its meaning.

The essence of translating is, of course, transferring meaning, that is, converting written ideas expressed in one language to another language. Successful translators have excellent language skills and extensive vocabulary in both languages. They are constantly working to improve their languages. They pay attention to regional variations and to new and evolve vocabulary. They prepare for every assignment by learning specialized vocabulary, but there is more to know about translating. Transferring meaning is more complex than it seems, and producing an error-free translation is not

17 easy. A good translation is the result of: thoroughly investigating the requirements for the translation project, and then following a proven process to create the translation.

Translator is mainly a “message conveyor.” Thus a translation may be understood as the process whereby a message which is expressed in a particular SL is linguistically transformed in order to be understood by readers of the TL. Actually, the translator conveys the meaning expressed by the original writer so at the end reader gets a translated text that is faithful to the source text in meaning.

De Groot (in Silalahi 2012:11) defines the translation as an activity which re-formulating the source text into the target text. Groot’s definition of translation brings out translation as a process to recreate or reproduce new form of SL applied in TL.

Furthermore, supporting the idea of Groot’s definition, Nida (in Venuti 2000:127) states about some factor while translating sort of text; consist of (1) the nature of the message, (2) the purpose or purposes of the author and, by proxy, of the translator, and (3) the type of audience. There are 3 stages in translation process, they are (1) analyze the SLT, (2) transferring ideas or information, (3) restructuring (Suryawininata in Nababan, 2003:25) as described in this diagram below:

18 Diagram 1. Translation Process (Suryawininata in Nababan, 2003:25)

1. Analyzing The Text

It is the first step that needs to be undergone by translator. At this stagethe

grammaticalrelationshipsandthe meaningofeachwordandphraseis analyzed,studiedandexplored by reading the source text over and over again;at this

stagewhat is written(born structures) are analyzedaccording togrammaticalrelations, the meaning ofwords orcombinations of words, thetextualandcontextualmeaningtoa better understanding ofwhat the source text is intended to deliver.

2. Transferring Idea

At this stage, the meaningwhichhas beenanalyzed, examinedandtracedin the first stagedivertedortransferredin the mind ofthe translatorfromthe SLintothe TL. The innerstructure(headwork) operatestosearchthe equivalence of any informationthat isincomprehensibleatthis firststage. This process happens in the translator’ mind (Nababan calls it as proses batin).

3. Restructuring

The last stage in the translation process is restructuring wherethe translatorrewritingorparaphrasingmaterial that has beentreatedin first stageand second stageinsuch a way thatthe translation product hasreadability, style, and therules whicharereasonable andacceptableforthe targetreaders.

Another stage of translation process is proposed by Bell (1991:21) which is shown in the diagram below:

19 Diagram 2: The Diagram of Translation Process by Bell (1991:21)

The process of translation as shown in the diagram above is actually pretty much the same with the one that proposed by Suryawinata. The diagram above shows that in the process of translation, it always deals with semantic analysis which occurs in the translator’s minds. In this process, the translator tries to analyze the meaning of what source text tries to imply. The determination ofthemeaningmustalways beassociatedwiththe context. After analyzing the meaning; the translator then synthesizes it and delivers it in the target text.

Ifthe translatorsdo notexperience problemsinthesynthesisprocess, the translatorcanproduce a translation. If they have notmanaged toproducewell-meaning ormessage conveyed in the source text, then they could return to the first step. Therefore, it can be said that thetranslation processis cyclical, whichcan berepeateduntil thetranslatorconvincedthat s/hehasmanaged to findequivalenttextinthe SL intothe TL.

20 2.3.1 Translation Approach

Translation approach refers to the way translator approaches the translation problems which later lead to the quality of translation product. Baker and Newmark (in Silalahi 2012:20) divide translation approach into two points; bottom-up approach and top-down approach.

In bottom-up approach, translator starts translating from the lowest linguistic unit (word to the sentence), while in top-down approach, translator tries to start from the highest linguistic unit (sentence to word).

Nord (in Silalahi 2012:20) states the five steps in top-down approach into:

1. Text function-in-situation 2. Cultural norms and conventions 3. Linguistic structures

4. Context 5. Translator

According to Nord about the top-down approach; firstly, problem thatarisesin translation(e.g idiomaticexpression) is analyzedin relation toits functionin the textandthe culture of TL.Furthermore, the translatormakesa decisionwhether thetranslationmust be adaptedto thenormsand customs and cultures ofthe TL(domesticating) ormaintain the culture ofthe SLinthetranslation product(foreignizing). This decisionconcerns thetranslationstrategyin addressing the problems of equivalency and untranslatability.

21 The decision to adjust the equivalence in text makes some limitation for the translator to apply technique and methods of translation in the text.

Top-down approach is an approach thatis idealandtheoretically, this approachis more concerned withthe process of transferring the highest linguistic unit; that is text than product (Silalahi 2012:22). Newmark also supports the using of the top-down

approach as the guidance for the translator to apply into the translation, Newmark (in

Silalahi 2012:21) says, “The second approach to translating is top to bottom, which every translation teacher recommends and the poor students follow, but perhaps few instinctive translators practice.”

2.3.2 Translation Strategy

Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (2000) defines strategy as a plan of action or policy designed to achieve a major or overall aim while translation is the process o

Lörscher (2005:599) states that translation strategy is a procedure applied by translator in solving the problems in the process of translation. Therefore, translation strategy starts when the translator is aware of the problems in the process of translation and ended with the problem solving or when s/he realizes that those kinds of problems cannot be solved at some given time point.

language. Terminologically, translation strategy is a plan of action or policy designed in the process of translating words or text from one language into another language.

22 Supporting the idea of Lörscher, Silalahi (2012:22) states that “Strategi

penerjemahan merupakan bagian dari proses penerjemahan” (Translation strategy is

also one of the vital parts of the process of translation). She also states that the translation strategy is applied when the process of translation occurs. Furthermore, translation strategy is the step that must be done by translator, in order to solve certain problems in the process of translation.

According to Lörscher in his articlePsychological Analysis of Translation

Processes explains (1996:27) that translation strategies have their starting-point in the

realization of a problem by a subject, and their termination in a (possibly preliminary) solution to the problem or in the subject’s realization of the insolubility of the problem at the given point in time. Between the realization of a translation problem and the realization of its solution or insolubility, further verbal and /or mental activities can occur which can be interpreted as being strategy steps or elements of translation strategies. Lörscher’s model of translation strategies is as follows:

Table 1. Lörscher’s Model of Translation Strategies

STRATEGY DEFINITION

RR Realizing a translational problem VP Verbalizing a translational problem

SP Search for a (possible preliminary) solution to a translational problem SP Solution to a translational problem SP a.b.c… Parts of a solution to a translational

23 problem

SP Ø A solution to a translational problem is still to be found (Ø)

SP = Ø Negative (Ø) solution to a translational problem

PSL Problem in the reception of the SLT

The first step involves the act of translator realizing a problem while dealing with the process of translation. Then, the translator begins to saying the discovered translational problem out-loud. In the next stage, the translator begins to look for the most primer solution to the problem in question in order to find a suitable answer to that question. Although this solution may not be the final one, it might provide the translator with some basic components to understand the final answer to the problem faced. As Lörscher’s points out, this stage will then lead to one of the five possible endings listed as follows:

a. The translator finds the final solution to the translational problem;

b. The translator will partly find the final solution to the translational problem;

c. The translator has not yet found the final solution to the translational problem;

d. The translator could not find the solution to the translational problem; and e. The translator faces a problem in the reception of the SLT.

24 Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English (2000) defines principle as a law, a rule or a theory that something is based on while translation is the process of

Related to the translation principle, Duff (1989:10-11) proposes some general principles which are supposed to be relevant to all translations.

Terminologically, translation strategy is a law, a rule or a theory that is the process of translating words or text from one language into another language based on.

1. The translation should reflect accurately the meaning of the original text. Nothing should be arbitrarily added or removed, though occasionally part of the meaning can be transposed. The following questions will be very helpful.

a. Is the meaning of the original text clear? b. If not, where does the uncertainty lie?

c. Are any words loaded, that is, are there any underlying implications?

d. Is the dictionary meaning of a particular word the most suitable one?

e. Does anything in the translation sound unnatural or forced?

2. The ordering of words and ideas in the translation should match the original as closely as possible. (This is probably essential in translating legal documents, guarantees, contracts, etc). But differences in language structure often require changes in the form and order of words.

25 3. Languages often differ greatly in their level of formality in a specific

context. To resolve these differences, the translator must distinguish between formal or fixed expressions and personal expressions in which the writer or speaker sets the tone.

4. Many translations do not sound natural. This is because the translator’s thoughts and choices of words are too strongly influenced by the original text. A good way to avoid this is to set the text aside and translate a few sentences from memory in order to get the natural patterns of thought in the TL.

5. The translator should not change the style of the original as much as possible. Changes are likely to happen if it necessary such as, many repetitions or mistakes in writing.

6. Idiomatic expressions, including similes, metaphors, proverbs, sayings,jargon, slang, colloquialisms, and phrasal verbs ---- are commonly hard to translate. In order to solve this problem, there are several steps that can be conducted:

a. Keep the original word between inverted commas.

b. Keep the original expression, with a literal explanation in brackets.

c. Use a close equivalent.

d. Use a non-idiomatic or plain prose translation.

But what is the most essential is that if the idiom does not work in the TL; do not force it into the translation.

26 2.5 Translation Methods

Molina and Albir (in Silalahi 2012:55) define translation method as awaytranslation processis donein relation to theobjectivestranslator. Translationmethodis aglobaloptionthat affectsthe entire text. Basically themethod oftranslationis firstlydeterminedbythe translatorbefore s/hedoesthe translation process.

Newmark (1988:45) introducesadiagramwhichhe describesas

aDiagramVtoshowtwodifferent polesof thetranslationmethod. The firstpolar is very

concerned aboutthe systemandculture ofthe source language, while the othergreatlyappreciatesthe systemandthe culture of targetlanguage.

SL Emphasis TL Emphasis

Word-for-word translation Adaptation Literal translation Free translation Faithful translation Idiomatic translation Semantic translation Communicative translation Diagram 3: Diagram V _{of Translation Method by Newmark (1988:45)}

2.5.1 SL Emphasis Method

Newmark divides SL Emphasis method into four types; word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, and semantic translation.

27 Theword-for-word translationis verydependenton the level ofwords. In applyingthismethod oftranslation, the translator is just looking forthe equivalent ofthe SLin the TL, andthe equivalent of wordsare notassociatedwith thecontext. The translatordoes notalterthe wordingof theSL in the product oftranslation. In other words, the arrangement ofwordsinthe TLsentence is exactly the same as the arrangement ofwordsinthe SL. The examples belowillustrate thetranslations producedusingthismethod.

a. SL : Look, little girl, you-all shouldn’t be doing that.

TL : Lihat, kecil anak perempuan, kamu semua harus tidak melakukan

itu.

Based on the translation product, the TL sounds ambiguous and awkward because the structure of ‘kecil anak perempuan’ is not acceptable in the structure of Indonesian Language and the meaning of ‘harus tidak’ is less precise. They are supposed to be ‘gadis kecil’ and ‘seharusnya tidak’. Therefore, the better translation would be ‘Lihat, gadis kecil, kamu seharusnya tidak melakukan itu.’

b. SL : I like that smart student. TL : Saya menyukai itu anak pintar.

The translation product is not acceptable in TL by reason of the right grammatical structure is ‘anak pintar itu’ instead of ‘itu pintar anak’. Therefore, the most appropriate translation is ‘Saya menyukai anak pintar itu.’

28 Thistranslation methodhas something in common witha word-for-wordtranslationand free translation thatthe equivalency of wordsis alwaysout of context. In the process of translation, the translatorseeksto find thegrammaticalconstruction ofSLintothe grammaticalconstructions of TL. In applying this method, the translator seems to apply word-for-word translation, but then theyadjust the grammatical structure according to the grammatical structure of TL as showninthe examplebelow:

a. SL : It’s raining cats and dogs. TL : Hujan kucing dan anjing.

b. SL : His heart in the right place.

TL : Hatinya berada di tempat yang benar.

c. SL : The sooner or the later the weather will change. TL : Lebih cepat atau lebih lambat cuaca akan berubah.

Based on translation product, some of the words that are translated literally still sounded awkward, for instance, the sentence a is better to be translated as ‘hujan deras’ instead of ‘hujan kucing dan anjing’. Sentence b is supposed to be translated as ‘hatinya

tenteram’ instead of ‘hatinya berada di tempat yang benar’ because those are what the

real meanings are. Likewise, sentence c is better to be translated as ‘cepat atau lambat cuacanya akan berubah.’

3. Faithful translation

This kind of translation method seeks to be as faithful as possible in producing the contextual meaning of the SLT though violates the grammatical structure of the TL.

29 This method is freer than literal translation, but it still feels rigid because it is very faithful to the intent and purpose of SL as shown in the example below.

SL : Ben is too well aware that he’s naughty.

TL : Ben menyadari terlalu baik bahwa ia nakal.

Even though the meaning in the TL is very close (faithful) with the meaning in the SL, it still sounds rigid. It will be more natural and appropriate if it gets polished one more time in the stage of harmonization and then adjust it according to the grammatical structure of TL into ‘Ben sangat sadar bahwa ia nakal.’

4. Semantic Translation

Thiskindoftranslationmethod isfocusedon finding the equivalence of words whichremainsbound to theculture ofthe SLandtrying to change thecontextualmeaning ofthe SLthat isas close as possibleto thesyntacticandsemanticstructure ofthe TL. For example, if a command sentence in English is translated into Indonesian Language, then the translation must be also in a form of command or directive. The words that construct the command sentence in English must have component of meaning which is exactly the same with the ones in its translation. The example of this type of translation can be seen shown in example below.

Situation A.

Mrs. Max : You must close the door right now. Micky : Yes, mom.

Situation B.

30 Micky : Yes, madam.

From the examples above, it can be seen that the words ‘mom’ and ‘madam’ refer to the same referent which is Mrs. Max (Micky’s mother). What distinguishes these two words is the component of meaning. The components of meaning of word ‘mom’ are (1) informal and (2) intimate, while in word ‘madam’ are (1) formal and (2) not intimate. In translating these two words based on semantic translation, it is expected to find the component of meaning that is exactly the same with the in SL which in this case is English Language. Therefore, if the word ‘mom’ is translated into Indonesian Language, it will be ‘ma’ for they share the same components of meaning.

The same thing also happens with word ‘madam’. If it is translated into Indonesian Language, it will be’bu’ for they also belong to the same components of meaning which are formal and not intimate.

2.5.2 TL Emphasis Method

Newmark divides SL Emphasis method into four types; adaptation, free translation, idiomatic translation, and communicative translation.

1. Adaptation Translation

This translationmethodtries to change theculture ofthe SLintothe TL. In general,the results areseen not asatranslation product but as arewriting ofthe SLtextintothe TL. The textthat is generatedby applyingthismethodisthe freestform oftranslationasshownin theexamplebelow.

SL : As soon as Bobby arrived in Lake Michigan, he texted his wife. TL : Segera setelah Ucok tiba di Danau Toba, dia berkirim surat kepada

31 istrinya.

From the translation product, it can be concluded that the SL is adapted into the culture of North Sumatera in the TL. The name ‘Bobby’ is translated as ‘Ucok’ in accordance with the culture of North Sumatera for the name ‘Bobby’ usually belongs to Western culture. The place ‘Lake Michigan’ is translated as ‘Danau Toba’, a lake in North Sumatera. While the sentence ‘he texted his wife’ is translated as ‘dia berkirim

surat kepada istrinya’ based on the traditional culture of people in North Sumatera.

2. Free Translation

Freetranslation methodproducesthe targettextthat does not containthe style, orform ofthe sourcetext. This translationmethodisnot tied tothe search of equivalence in the level of wordorphrase. The search of equivalencetends totake placeat the level ofthetext. This translation method is different with adaptation translation. The message conveyed in this type of translation must be exactly the same with the one in SL. Translatorshave onlylimited freedom inexpressingthemessagein the TL, they do not have freedom to modify the original text. On contrary, by applying adaptation translation, it is possible for the translator to do some modification, for instance, by changing the name of the character or place. The application of free translation can be seen in the example below.

SL : I kissed her.

TL : Saya telah mencetak sebuah ciuman pada bibirnya yang merah.

It can be clearly seen that the TL is much longer than the SL. It is as the result of the addition of several unsure in TL. It sounds more radical; even though it keeps

32 maintaining the content or message of the SL where it can only be translated as ‘saya menciumnya’.

3. Idiomatic Translation

Larson (in Choliludin 2006:23) states that idiomatictranslationusingnaturalforminthe TLT, according to itsgrammaticalconstructionsandlexicalchoice. A translation that is truly idiomatic does

not seem like a product of translation. It seems like it is directly written by the original speaker. Therefore, a good translator will translate a text idiomatically. Newmark (1988:47) adds that idiomatic translation reproduces the message conveyed in the SL by using the more natural and familiar words of TL. A brief example of this method can be seen below.

SL : I’ll shout you beer.

TL : Mari minum bir sama-sama, saya yang bayar.

The idiom ‘I’ll shout you beer’ is translated as ‘Mari minum bir sama-sama,

saya yang bayar’ which sounds more natural according to daily conversation in the TL

instead of translating it as ‘saya meneriakkanmu sebuah bir.’

4. Communicative Translation

According toNewmark(1988:47), communicativetranslationattempts totranslate thecontextualmeaning oftheSLT, bothaspects of languageandaspects ofcontents, in order to be acceptedandunderstoodbythe reader. Machali(2000:55) addsthatthismethod highly pays attention to the principlesof communication which is the readersandtranslationpurposes.

33

In additionNababan(2003:41) explainsthat

thecommunicativetranslationbasicallyemphasizesthe transfer ofmessages. This method isvery concerned aboutthe readerorlistenerof TLwhodo not expect anydifficultiesandambiguitiesin the translation text. This methodis alsoconcerned aboutthe effectiveness of translationlanguage. For instance, the statement ’Awas Anjing

Galak’ can be translated as “Beware of the dog!” instead of “Beware of the vicious

dog!” becausethe statement “Beware of the dog!” has beckoned that ‘the dog’ is vicious (galak).

2.6 Shifts

Eachlanguagehasits ownrules. The rulesappliedin a certain language are not necessarily appliedinother languages. This applies toallelements ofthe language; grammar, phonology, andsemantics. It canalsobe saidthattoexpress the meaning, languagehasits ownwayin usingthe linguistic devices. For example, in expressing a plural form of a noun, English uses morpheme –s in the end of the word whereas in Indonesian Language, it is sometimes by repeating the pertinent noun or by using another words that express the concept of more than one or many, such as dua,

beberapa, atau banyak, without changing or repeating the form of the related noun.

Based on that fact, it is natural to using shifts in the process of translation.

The translatorsmight face a plethora of linguistic, stylistic and even cultural problems inthey attempt to transfer meaning from SL to TL by means of the universally known practice of translation. In this regard, Popovic (1970:79) confirms that "this transfer is not performed directly and is not without its difficulties." This means that the

34 process of translation can be analyzed along a range of possibilities, which brings about a number of shifts in the linguistic, aesthetic and intellectual values of the source text.

The occurrence of shifts in any translational activity is an unavoidable phenomenon. As what Nida (in Venuti 2000:126) states that there can be no absolute correspondence between languages. Shift represents some changes occurred in a translation process. Shifts occur both at the lower level of language, i.e. the lexico-grammar, and at the higher thematic level of text. It also occurs either in translation or interpreting.

Catford (1978:73) states that by means shift, it is referred to the departure from formal correspondencein the process of going from the SL to the TL. Further, he states that basically, in shift of translation, or transposition he says, it is only the form that is changed. In addition, he urges the translation shift is done to get the natural equivalent of the source text message into the target text (1978:76). Translation shifts also occur when there is no formal correspondence to the syntactic item to be translated (Machali, 1998:3). According to Bell (1991:33), to shiftfrom one language to another is, by definition, to alter the forms.

2.6.1 Semantic Shift

In addition to thepossibilityof a shiftinthe structureandcategories of words, a shiftcanoccurinthe field ofsemantics.Nida and Taber in his book The Theory and

Practice of Translation proposes a type of shift related to semantic field. The shift

occurs due to the differences of viewpoints and cultureof speakersof differentlanguages. This kind of shift shows that it is impossible to deliver the meaning contained in the source text into target text precisely. Semantic shift itself is divided into shift from

35 general meaning to specific meaning or vice versa and shift that occurs due cultural differences.

Nida and Taber (1969:171) say that some of the most common shifts in meaning found in the transfer process are modifications which involve specific and genericmeaning. Such shifts may go in either direction from generic to specific or specific to generic. A shift may result from a difference of the system in both languages. The difference can be in the form of vocabulary or structure, the shift caused by the vocabulary results in a shift in meaning. It can be concluded that there are two kinds of shifts in meaning. The first is the meaning shift from general to specific meaning or vice versa. The second is the meaning shift that occurs due to cultural differences.

Meaning should be the primaryabsorption of all translation. However, the amount of this interest varies according to the type of meaning conveyed by the lexical items of a given text. As far as translation is concerned, the translators have to do their best to transfer as much of the original meaning as they can into the TL. But as already be known, the process of meaning transfer is not a straightforward process, the translators, therefore, are often called upon to make some semantic adjustments in order to accomplish this task. Such semantic adjustments are analyzed as semantic shifts, which can be obligatory or optional. The former are dictated by the unavoidable semantic gaps between the SL and TL. Such gaps are mainly caused by some cultural and conceptual differences between the two languages (Nida and Taber 1969:170). The latter in turn arise when the translator attempts to maintain the essence of the original meaning while practicing some means of semantic polishing.

36 The process of finding semantically equivalent lexical items is carried out by performing a variety of shifts in the centraland/or surrounding components of the source text lexical items. By means of careful contextual conditioning, the translator may remove or insert some componential values associated with the source text lexical items. According to Nida and Taber (1969:107), "in many instances, shifts of components involve only a shift from a literal etymological meaning to one which is functionally more relevant."

As for the relation between the lexical items and their referents, which is the core of their referential meaning, the translator is likely to face three situations. The first one is "the existence of a term (and its corresponding referent) in the TL, but with an equivalent function being performed by another referent." A good example for such situation is when translating the word 'snow’ from English into a language which has no word for it. The translators have to replace the word 'snow' in the phrase 'as white as snow' by another word, which refers to a white-colored object.

The second situation is "the existence of the referent in the TL, but with a different function from what it has in the SL." The Tobanese word 'cikcak' and its Arabic equivalent ‘sahliat’ represent a good example for such a problem. In English, it refers to a class of reptile with positive connotation, i.e., fortune and fertility. Arabic has exactly the opposite connotation for the same referent, the fact which requires finding another word referring to an object with similar connotations.

The third situation is "the non-existence of the referent in the TL and no other referent with a parallel function". The translation of any lexical item denoting

37 technological inventions from English into Indonesian provides a good example for such a problem. Here, the translator is compelled to force foreign words into the TL or to use descriptive phrases to explain the meaning of individual lexical items.

2.6.1.1 Shift from Generic Meaning to Specific Meaning (or vice versa)

Shift sometimes happens because a very precise equivalent of a certain word of SL cannot be found in the TL. For example, a word in SL has a general meaning but the equivalent word of it in TL refers to a specific one. Therefore, the adjustment that can be done is by using an equivalent that has more specific meaning or vice versa, and this is what is called as shift.

If we translate the word “leg”or “foot” into Indonesian language, then the most equivalent word of those two words is kaki. It shows that we move from a specific meaning into general one. In Indonesian language, the concept of “leg”and “foot” are expressed in a single word which has a general meaning kaki.

The shift from generic meaning to specific meaning or vice versa in the process of translation does not only occur in ‘noun’ class of word, it can also occur in ‘verb’, ‘adjective’, and any other class of words. For example, the verbs bergeser, beringsut,

and berpindah in Indonesian Language have more specific meanings than bergerak

butthose three words have only one equivalent word in English Language which is “move” which has more general meaning.

In Keley-I Language (Hohulin and Hohulin in Simatupang 2000:79), there are several verbs which have specific meanings whose generic meaning is membawa in

38 Indonesian Language or ‘carry’in English Language. Unfortunately, in English Language there is no equivalent word of those verbs which only consist of one word. Those verbs are as presented below:

Table 2.Keley-I Language (Hohulin and Hohulin in Simatupang 2000:79)

KELEY-I LANGUAGE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Agtu To carry on the head

Pahan To carry on the shoulder

Balitutu To carry someone on the nape of the

neck with legs straddling the neck

Ahewit To carry on the shoulder a stick from

which a load is suspended at one end

Batewil To carry on the shoulder a carrying bar

from which a load is suspended at each end

Attang To carry a long or heavy load, as the

trunk of a tree, on the shoulder of two or more people

Eba To carry a person in a sling of cloth

Hakbat To carry something on the back

Hakewil To carry something or someone under

the arm

Hakli To carry someone on the lap area

Apupu To carry some or something at the frontal

region of the body with arms folded over the thing being carried.

39 2.6.1.2 Shift that Occurs Due to Cultural Differences

Semantic (meaning) shift alsooccursdue todifferences inviewpointsandcultures of thespeakers ofdifferentlanguages. Meaningthat needs to be conveyedby theSLmay havedifferentmeaningscontainedinthe TLthatclearly hasdifferent culture. Cultureofa certainlanguageis notalwaysthe same with theculture ofother languages because it is related to the way people think. This thenleads toa shiftof meaninginthe translation process.

Translation, strictly speaking, cannot be seen as a simple task of random matching of SL lexical items with their TL counterparts. If so, everybody can do this by relying on a bilingual dictionary. By contrast, the translators need to analyze the meaning of the SL lexical items before trying to find TL equivalents for these items. In their attempt to search for efficient lexical equivalents in the TL, they have to play the role of a competent representative on behalf of their readers; they must identify the areas of cultural overlap and linguistic interference between the two languages.

Another example about the shift of meaning due to cultural differences can be seen when translating the term samurai into Indonesian language pendekar. As already be known, in the culture of Indonesia people, there is no such thing as samurai who is actually originated from Japan. If it is translated to samurai, Indonesian readers might find difficulty in relating it to the Indonesian culture. Therefore, it is better to translate it

as pendekar which is more recognized by Indonesian people for it is based on the

40 Ifwepay attention tothe types ofcolor inEnglishorotherforeignlanguagesusedinthe

factorypaint, fashion, paintingortextiles, thetranslation of thosewordsintoIndonesiancould beshiftedbecauseoftenthe equivalent ofwhich do

notexist inIndonesian. That is why there are so many borrowings word that can be found in terms of colors. In Bataknese, for instance, there is no such word as biru, hence Bataknese language borrows word balau which is originated from Dutch (blauw). In connection with these words of color, there are many borrowing words used in Indonesia. Aside from those loan-words, there are many new terms are created, such as oker, biru benhur, merah anggur, biru laut, indigo, oranye, krem, warna platinum,

warna blewah, etc.

2.7 Review of Related Literature

In completing this thesis, the writer surely uses several books as the guidance that gives information related to problem of the study. Here below are primary books that are used by the writer:

The Theory and Practice of Translation by Nida and Taber which is published in

1969. In this book they propose a brand new kind of shift which is semantic shift. This book helps the writer to learn more about semantic shift which becomes the problem of study in this thesis. They also propose three kinds of problems that might be faced by translators related to shift in semantic field.

Pengantar Teori Terjemahan by Simatupang which is published in 2000.

41 shift. He gives clear explanation about semantic shift which he adapts from what has been previously proposed by Nida and Taber.

Terjemahan Teks Medis Dalam Bahasa Indonesia by Silalahi which is published

in 2012. This book gives much information about translation approach and translation strategy which helps the writer in explaining about those two points in this thesis.

A thesis entitled Meaning Shifts in the Translation of Khaled Hosseini’s the Kite

Runner in Bahasa Indonesia: a Gender Analysis Perspective which is written by Lilis

Fitriany B in 2009. In this thesis, the writer analyzes meaning shifts made by feminist translator in translating a novel written by masculine author. After analyzing meaning shifts contained in the novel, from 16 finding data, it is gotten 12 shifts that belong to decrease of meaning and 4 shifts that belong to increase of meaning. Through this thesis, the writer gets more information about how to analyze meaning shift and what kind of shift that can be categorized as meaning shifts.

36 The process of finding semantically equivalent lexical items is carried out by performing a variety of shifts in the centraland/or surrounding components of the source text lexical items. By means of careful contextual conditioning, the translator may remove or insert some componential values associated with the source text lexical items. According to Nida and Taber (1969:107), "in many instances, shifts of components involve only a shift from a literal etymological meaning to one which is functionally more relevant."

As for the relation between the lexical items and their referents, which is the core of their referential meaning, the translator is likely to face three situations. The first one is "the existence of a term (and its corresponding referent) in the TL, but with an equivalent function being performed by another referent." A good example for such situation is when translating the word 'snow’ from English into a language which has no word for it. The translators have to replace the word 'snow' in the phrase 'as white as snow' by another word, which refers to a white-colored object.

The second situation is "the existence of the referent in the TL, but with a different function from what it has in the SL." The Tobanese word 'cikcak' and its Arabic equivalent ‘sahliat’ represent a good example for such a problem. In English, it refers to a class of reptile with positive connotation, i.e., fortune and fertility. Arabic has exactly the opposite connotation for the same referent, the fact which requires finding another word referring to an object with similar connotations.

The third situation is "the non-existence of the referent in the TL and no other referent with a parallel function". The translation of any lexical item denoting

37 technological inventions from English into Indonesian provides a good example for such a problem. Here, the translator is compelled to force foreign words into the TL or to use descriptive phrases to explain the meaning of individual lexical items.

2.6.1.1 Shift from Generic Meaning to Specific Meaning (or vice versa)

Shift sometimes happens because a very precise equivalent of a certain word of SL cannot be found in the TL. For example, a word in SL has a general meaning but the equivalent word of it in TL refers to a specific one. Therefore, the adjustment that can be done is by using an equivalent that has more specific meaning or vice versa, and this is what is called as shift.

If we translate the word “leg”or “foot” into Indonesian language, then the most equivalent word of those two words is kaki. It shows that we move from a specific meaning into general one. In Indonesian language, the concept of “leg”and “foot” are expressed in a single word which has a general meaning kaki.

The shift from generic meaning to specific meaning or vice versa in the process of translation does not only occur in ‘noun’ class of word, it can also occur in ‘verb’, ‘adjective’, and any other class of words. For example, the verbs bergeser, beringsut, and berpindah in Indonesian Language have more specific meanings than bergerak butthose three words have only one equivalent word in English Language which is “move” which has more general meaning.

In Keley-I Language (Hohulin and Hohulin in Simatupang 2000:79), there are several verbs which have specific meanings whose generic meaning is membawa in

38 Indonesian Language or ‘carry’in English Language. Unfortunately, in English Language there is no equivalent word of those verbs which only consist of one word. Those verbs are as presented below:

Table 2.Keley-I Language (Hohulin and Hohulin in Simatupang 2000:79)

KELEY-I LANGUAGE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Agtu To carry on the head

Pahan To carry on the shoulder

Balitutu To carry someone on the nape of the

neck with legs straddling the neck

Ahewit To carry on the shoulder a stick from

which a load is suspended at one end

Batewil To carry on the shoulder a carrying bar

from which a load is suspended at each end

Attang To carry a long or heavy load, as the

trunk of a tree, on the shoulder of two or more people

Eba To carry a person in a sling of cloth

Hakbat To carry something on the back

Hakewil To carry something or someone under

the arm

Hakli To carry someone on the lap area

Apupu To carry some or something at the frontal

region of the body with arms folded over the thing being carried.

39 2.6.1.2 Shift that Occurs Due to Cultural Differences

Semantic (meaning) shift alsooccursdue todifferences inviewpointsandcultures of thespeakers ofdifferentlanguages. Meaningthat needs to be conveyedby theSLmay havedifferentmeaningscontainedinthe TLthatclearly hasdifferent culture. Cultureofa certainlanguageis notalwaysthe same with theculture ofother languages because it is related to the way people think. This thenleads toa shiftof meaninginthe translation process.

Translation, strictly speaking, cannot be seen as a simple task of random matching of SL lexical items with their TL counterparts. If so, everybody can do this by relying on a bilingual dictionary. By contrast, the translators need to analyze the meaning of the SL lexical items before trying to find TL equivalents for these items. In their attempt to search for efficient lexical equivalents in the TL, they have to play the role of a competent representative on behalf of their readers; they must identify the areas of cultural overlap and linguistic interference between the two languages.

Another example about the shift of meaning due to cultural differences can be seen when translating the term samurai into Indonesian language pendekar. As already be known, in the culture of Indonesia people, there is no such thing as samurai who is actually originated from Japan. If it is translated to samurai, Indonesian readers might find difficulty in relating it to the Indonesian culture. Therefore, it is better to translate it as pendekar which is more recognized by Indonesian people for it is based on the Indonesian culture.

40 Ifwepay attention tothe types ofcolor inEnglishorotherforeignlanguagesusedinthe

factorypaint, fashion, paintingortextiles, thetranslation of thosewordsintoIndonesiancould beshiftedbecauseoftenthe equivalent ofwhich do

notexist inIndonesian. That is why there are so many borrowings word that can be found in terms of colors. In Bataknese, for instance, there is no such word as biru, hence Bataknese language borrows word balau which is originated from Dutch (blauw). In connection with these words of color, there are many borrowing words used in Indonesia. Aside from those loan-words, there are many new terms are created, such as oker, biru benhur, merah anggur, biru laut, indigo, oranye, krem, warna platinum, warna blewah, etc.

2.7 Review of Related Literature

In completing this thesis, the writer surely uses several books as the guidance that gives information related to problem of the study. Here below are primary books that are used by the writer:

The Theory and Practice of Translation by Nida and Taber which is published in 1969. In this book they propose a brand new kind of shift which is semantic shift. This book helps the writer to learn more about semantic shift which becomes the problem of study in this thesis. They also propose three kinds of problems that might be faced by translators related to shift in semantic field.

Pengantar Teori Terjemahan by Simatupang which is published in 2000. Through this book, the writer gets more information about shift especially semantic

41 shift. He gives clear explanation about semantic shift which he adapts from what has been previously proposed by Nida and Taber.

Terjemahan Teks Medis Dalam Bahasa Indonesia by Silalahi which is published in 2012. This book gives much information about translation approach and translation strategy which helps the writer in explaining about those two points in this thesis.

A thesis entitled Meaning Shifts in the Translation of Khaled Hosseini’s the Kite Runner in Bahasa Indonesia: a Gender Analysis Perspective which is written by Lilis Fitriany B in 2009. In this thesis, the writer analyzes meaning shifts made by feminist translator in translating a novel written by masculine author. After analyzing meaning shifts contained in the novel, from 16 finding data, it is gotten 12 shifts that belong to decrease of meaning and 4 shifts that belong to increase of meaning. Through this thesis, the writer gets more information about how to analyze meaning shift and what kind of shift that can be categorized as meaning shifts.