CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter consists of theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description presents the definition and discussion of some theories
which are related to the nature of speaking and teaching speaking. The theoretical framework presents the summary of all relevant theories which help the
researcher to solve the problems.
A. Theoretical Description
1. The Nature of Speaking
Nunan 2003: 48 defines speaking as “the productive auraloral skill.” This skill consists of producing systematic verbal utterances to convey meaning.
Speaking happens in real time and when a speaker speaks, shehe cannot edit or revise what shehe wishes to say. Paulston 1976: 55-56 in her book defines
speaking as a competence or an ability to communicate in the target language. The National Capital Language Resource Center 2004, as cited in “The
Essentials of Language Teaching – Teaching Speaking” http:www.nclrc.org. essentialsspeakingspindex.htm
states that speaking involves three areas of knowledge; those are mechanics, functions, as well as social and cultural rules and
norms. Mechanics deal with pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. The speaker should know how to use the right words in the right order with the correct
pronunciation. When the speaker does not have knowledge on it, the speech
10 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
produced might be meaningless. The speech may have transactional or interactional function. The speaker should know when clarity of message is
essential transaction information exchange and when precise understanding is not required interaction relationship building. Social and cultural rules and
norms are related to turn-taking, rate of speech, length of pauses between speakers, relative roles of participants. Social and cultural rules and norms deal
with the understanding on how to take into account who is speaking to whom, in what circumstances, about what, and for what reason.
Speaking English is regarded as a skill which is difficult to learn because when people speak to someone, they have to know how to pronounce, how to
deliver the message of the speech and also how to use the rules of speaking. Thus, the students regard speaking as the most important skill they should acquire,
because knowing a language can be measured by their ability to speak Celce- Murcia, 1991: 125.
2. Principles for Teaching Speaking
There are five principles that should be considered by the teacher in teaching speaking Nunan, 2003: 54-56. The principles are very useful for the
teacher, especially for a new teacher who will teach speaking in herhis class. Therefore, those principles can be used as a guideline for the teacher, so that the
teaching-learning activities in speaking class will be successful. Those five principles are as follows:
a. Second Language and Foreign Language Learning Contexts
Speaking is learnt in two broad contexts. They are foreign language and second language situations. A foreign language FL context is one where the
target language which is learnt is not to be used as a language for communicating in the society. A second language SL context is one where the target language
which is learnt is used as a language for communicating in the society. This “second versus foreign” distinction is often confusing to both the
teacher and the students. Nevertheless, it is important to understand the difference, since these terms appear so often in language education field. The difference
between learning a second language and learning a foreign language is usually defined in terms of where the language is learnt and what social and
communicative functions the language serves there. A second language has social and communicative functions within the community where it is learnt. In contrast,
a foreign language does not have immediate social and communicative functions within the community where it is learnt.
b. Practice with Both Fluency and Accuracy
In teaching speaking, the teacher should encourage the students to practice in both speaking fluency and accuracy. What is meant by fluency is the ability of
the speaker to use language smoothly and confidently, with few unnatural pauses. While the extent to which students’ speech matches what people actually say
when they use the target language is called accuracy. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
c. Give Opportunities for Students to Talk by Using Group Work or Pair Work, and Limiting Teacher Talk
A language teacher should be aware of how much time the teacher spends to talk in class so that the students still have time to talk in class. The teacher
should increase the amount of time for the students to speak in the target language during lessons, so that the students can practice to speak more in order to be able
to speak both fluently and accurately.
d. Negotiation for Meaning
In teaching speaking, the teacher should provide time which involves the process that is called negotiating for meaning, in which the students make
progress in speaking by communicating in the target language to understand and make themselves understood. It can be done by asking for clarification, repetition,
or explanations during conversations.
e. Provide Transactional and Interactional Speaking Activities
Harmer 1998: 87 says that “speaking is not only let the learner say a lot of sentences using a particular piece of grammar or particular function.” When the
students talk with someone else outside the classroom, they usually do speak for some purposes. It can be interactional or transactional purposes. That is why in
teaching speaking the teacher should design classroom activities which encourage the students to do both interactional and transactional speech, so that the students
do not use their language only for a particular function. In interactional speech, PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
the students communicate with others for social purposes, such as for establishing and maintaining social relationships. While in transactional speech, the students
communicate to have something done or to deliver some information.
3. Problems During Speaking Activities in the Classroom
During the lesson, the teacher should be aware of the problems which occur in the class. The problems which occur may come from the student himself,
their friends or the teacher. There are several problems which occur during speaking activities that influence students’ speaking fluency. Lawtie 2004 as
cited in “Teaching Speaking Skills 2 – Overcoming Classroom Problems” http:www.teachingenglish.org.ukthinkspeakspeak_skills2.shtml writes that
there are three problems which often occur during speaking class. Those problems are:
a. students do not want to talk or say anything because they are afraid of making
mistake or because they are not interested on the topic, b.
when students work in pairs or groups, they just end up chatting in their own language,
c. when all students speak together, it will be too noisy and out of hand, and
sometimes the teacher lose control of the classroom.
4. Factors Which Influence Students’ Speaking Fluency
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