Ann Phoenix in Shifting Identities Shifting Racisms: A Feminism A Psychology Reader remark that:
identity as a word which is much used in both academic and political contexts…The notion of identity is as static, and therefore, unchanging,
is one which is not fruitful in discussing the construction of, the reproduction
through, and
the challenge
to unequal
social relatio
nships…Identity as a static and unitary trait which lies within human beings, rather than as an interactional and contextual feature of all
social relationships, has been laid to rest. Identity as dynamic aspect of social relationships, is forged and reproduced through the agency
structure dyad, and is inscribed within unequal power relationships Bhavnani and Phoenix, 1994: 6-9.
From quotation above, the writer draws conclusion that identity covers various field of human beings. Notably, Bhavnani and Phoenix depict identity as a static
and dynamic and challenging an unequal condition in social relationships between human beings. The characteristics of identity, static and dynamic, are engraved
within disproportion power of human relationships. The static identity has been rested because it is not useful in discussing of human relationships.
Actually, Bhavnani and Phoenix reveal how the static identity cannot be maintained in the contemporary era. They also emphasize dynamic identity which
always be shaped and constituted in social structure. Further, they say that the constituted identity is portrayed in the unequal relationships.
G andhi’s definition of identity is almost the same as Bahvnani and
Phoenix. The difference between them is on the object of study. Gandhi in her book entitled Postcolonial Theory focuses on the unequal relations between the
colonizers and the colonized. She says that ―identity is always underpinned by the
presence of its Other, or that every major knowledge carries within itself the possibility of a countervailing minor-
ness‖ Gandhi, 1998: 54. Alexander Wendt
in his article Anarchy is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics pronounces identity as following explanations:
identities-relatively stable, role-specific understandings and expectations about self-by participating in such collective meanings. Identities are
inherently relational: Identity, with its appropriate attachments of psychological reality, is always identity within a specific, socially
constructed world Wendt, 1992: 397.
Based on quotation above, the writer finds some important points. First, identity is not stable. Second, identity is inherently relational. Third, identity is socially
constructed.
C. Review on Social Condition in Africa, India after Independence, and
England 1.
Review on Social Condition in Africa during Colonization a.
Scramble for Africa
Ehiedu E. G. Iweriebor, ―The Colonization of Africa” in Africana Age’s website comprehensively describes:
Africa experienced the European imperialist aggression, diplomatic pressures, military invasions and eventual conquest and colonization
between 1870s and 1900. The European imperialist push into Africa is motivated by three main factors, economic, political, and social. It
developed in the nineteenth century following the collapse of the profitability of the slave trade, its abolition and suppression, as well as
the expansion of the European capitalist Industrial Revolution. Thus the primary motivation for European intrusion is economic Iweriebor,
2011.
Aggression, diplomatic pressures, and military invasions have been done in African land by the Western people in order to grab the resources. On the other
hand, European people also spread the capitalist industrial revolution. By
spreading the capitalist system, the white man can control natural resources. The richness of Africa’s natural resources is explicitly explained by Charles R. Joy in
Emerging Africa as following explanations: even before the carving up of Africa, the nations of Europe has found
that there are other kinds of wealth in Africa besides the yellow gold dug from the rocks, the white gold of ivory, and the black gold of slaves. In
1867 diamonds are discovered in South Africa. Later, coal and many of the common metals are found in various parts of continent. Large
deposits of uranium have been found in the Congo and South Africa. Oil has also become a major resource Joy, 1967: 9.
However, Africa has many natural resources and those push the Western countries into Africa continent. Donald R. Wright in Microsoft Encarta 2008 also rises
economic as primary factor for European to control Africa. He describes that European nations begin scramble to grab colonies in Africa continent at the end of
the 19
th
century. The western people come close to the Africa continent by sending the soldiers. The soldiers have two functions; they act as investigator and
creator of settlements on African land. Western people take advantage on the African resources which enrich their own country.
The most aggressive country that exploits the African resources is England which is represented by Cecil Rhodes. Rhodes is diamond prospector
who gains control of many diamond mines in South Africa. He dominates world diamond production. He grasps African continent for Britain from 1881.
Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe are the countries that have been seized by Cecil Rhodes.
Subsequently, many other Western countries also exploit African resources such as France, Portuguese and Germany. All African countries except
Ethiopia and Liberia are controlled by European people in 1912. African countries can liberate from Western domination after 1950. Although most of the African
countries have got their independence, but Western people still attract by the natural sources. The Western scientists hunt for fossils and find out many
undiscovered kinds of plants and animals in African continent Wright, 2008.
b. The Effects of the Scramble
Western invasions to African continent generate profound ramifications for instance, many African die in war, poverty, deprivation and cultural bias.
Wright’s ―Scramble for Africa‖ in Microsoft Encarta depicts that the condition in Africa is absolutely different after World War I which most of the African
countries are under European control. The western people command on African coasts. In the British context, Cecil Rhodes has spread his authorities from the
Cape until Cairo. Western colonies in Africa give enormous advantages to their master for instance, gold in South Africa and overflowing harvest in East and
West Africa. Huge invasions to Africa continent become greatest importance throughout Europe. The stories about Western competitions toward African
continent are become headlines in Europe. Later, after the conquest is complete; Africa is absolutely disappeared in Western mind until the movement for African
independence of the 1950s and 1960s. Wright also states that: Effects of the European takeover on Africans are considerable. In the
short term, the Scramble obviously led to Africans’ loss of control of their own affairs. But it also brought enormous hardship to most
Africans. In addition to the deaths caused by the conquest itself, many Africans died as a result of disrupted lifestyles and movement of people
and animals among different disease environments. Africa’s population did not begin to recover from the devastation caused by the Scramble and
its aftermath until well into the 20th century. In the long term, the
