In the examples above, Argument, Time, Love, Theories, and Ideas are target domain, whereas War, Money, Journey, Buildings, and Food are source domain.
Source domain is domain which is conceived through using of source domain. Conceptual metaphors need to be distinguished from metaphorical
linguistic expressions. Metaphorical linguistic expressions are words or other linguistic expressions that come from the language or terminology of the concrete
conceptual domain.
32
They are the main type of evidence given for the existence of conceptual metaphors.
33
Here are the examples of metaphorical linguistic expression that reflect conceptual metaphor „TIME IS MONEY‟ given by Lakoff
and Johnson 1980: You are wasting my time.
This gadget will save you hours. How do you spend your time these days?
That flat tire cost me an hour. I have invested a lot of time in her.
You need to budged your time.
D. Kinds of Metaphor
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in their book Metaphors, We live By 1980, Also Zoltán Kövecses in his book, Metaphor: A Practical Introduction
2002, divided metaphor into three kinds:
32
Zoltán Kövecses. Ibid., p. 4.
33
Alice Deignan, Metaphor and Corpus Linguistics, Amsterdam: John Benjamin Publishing Company, 2005, p. 15.
1. Structural Metaphor
Structural Metaphor is cases where one concept is metaphorically structured in the term of another.
34
In this kind of metaphor, source domain provides rich knowledge structure for target concept. In other words, the cognitive
function is to enable speakers to understand target A by means of the structure of source B. It uses conceptual mapping between elements of A and elements of B.
ARGUMENT IS WAR Your claims are indefensible.
He attacked every weak point in my argument. His criticisms were right on target.
I demolished his argument. Ive never won an argument with him.
You disagree? Okay, shoot If you use that strategy, hell wipe you out.
He shot down all of my arguments.
35
In these examples above, it is important to see that we don‟t just talk about arguments in the term of war. We can actually win and lose an argument. We can
see the person who we are arguing with as an opponent, attack his positions and defend ours. We gain and lose ground, plan and use strategies. Many of things we
do in arguing are partially structured by the concept of war. Although, there is no physical battle, there is a verbal battle reflects this. Argument is War structures the
actions we perform in arguing. Metaphor Argument is War contains much metaphorical linguistics. The
mapping not only explains why the particular expressions mean what they do, but
34
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. Ibid., p.14.
35
Ibid, p.4.
also provide a basic overall structure, hence understanding, for our notion of war. Without metaphor it would be difficult to imagine what our concept of war.
Structural metaphor provides this kind of structuring and understanding for target concepts.
2. Orientational Metaphor
It is different with structural metaphor, where one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another. Orientational Metaphor is kind of
metaphor that does not structure one concept in term of another but instead organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to one another.
36
Orientational metaphors provide even less conceptual structure for target concepts than
ontological ones. Their cognitive job, instead, is to make a set of target concepts coherent in our conceptual system.
37
This kind of metaphor relates to spatial orientation, such as: up-down, in- out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral, etc. Orientational
metaphor gives a concept of a spatial orientation, for example, Happy is Up, the fact that the concept Happy is oriented Up leads English expressions like
“Im feeling up today”. Metaphorical orientations are not arbitrary, they have a basis in
our physical and cultural experience. Orientational metaphor based on things that can vary from culture to culture. In each case will be given brief hint about how
each metaphorical concept might arise in our physical and cultural experience:
38
36
Ibid., p.14.
37
Zoltán Kövecses, Ibid., p. 35.
38
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. Ibid., p.16.
HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN Im feeling up. That boosted my spirits. My spirits rose. Youre in high spirits.
Thinking about her always gives me a lift. Im feeling down. Im depressed. Hes really low these days. I fell into a depression. My spirits sank.
CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN Get up. Wake up. Im up already. He rises early in the morning. He fell asleep. He
dropped off to sleep. Hes under hypnosis. He sank into a coma. HEALTH AND LIFE ARE UP; SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWN
Hes at the peak of health. Lazarus rose from the dead. Hes in top shape. As to his health, hes way up there. He fell ill. Hes sinking fast. He came down with the flu.
His health is declining. He dropped dead. HAVING CONTROL or FORCE IS UP; BEING SUBJECT TO
CONTROL or FORCE IS DOWN I have control over her. I am on top of the situation. Hes in a superior position.
Hes at the height of his power. Hes in the high command. Hes in the upper echelon. His power rose. He ranks above me in strength. He is under my control.
He fell from power. His power is on the decline. He is my social inferior. He is
low man on the totem pole.
MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN The number of books printed each year keeps going up. His draft number
is high. My income rose last year. The amount of artistic activity in this state has gone down in the past year. The number of errors he made is incredibly low. His
income fell last year. He is underage. If youre too hot, turn the heat down.
FORESEEABLE FUTURE EVENTS ARE UP and AHEAD All up coming events are listed in the paper. Whats coming up this week? Im
afraid of whats up ahead of us. Whats up?
HIGH STATUS IS UP; LOW STATUS IS DOWN
He has a lofty position. Shell rise to the top. Hes at the peak of his career. Hes climbing the ladder. He has little upward mobility. Hes at the bottom of the social
hierarchy. She fell in status. GOOD IS UP; BAD IS DOWN
Things are looking up. We hit a peak last year, but its been downhill ever since. Things are at an all-time low. He does high-quality work.
VIRTUE IS UP; DEPRAVITY IS DOWN He is high-minded. She has high standards. She is upright. She is an upstanding
citizen. That was a low trick. Dont be underhanded. I wouldnt stoop to that. That would be beneath me. He fell into the abyss of depravity. That was a low-down
thing to do. RATIONAL IS UP; EMOTIONAL IS DOWN
The discussion fell to the emotional level, but I raised it back up to the rational plane. We put our feelings aside and had a high-level intellectual discussion of the
matter. He couldnt rise above his emotions.
3. Ontological metaphor
