The Description Of Indonesian-English Code Mixing Used In Social Network On Facebook

6 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics is a branch of linguistics that takes language as an object of study, in a way that usually distinguished from how syntax, semantics, morphology, and phonology handle it. Sociolinguistics studies the relationship between language and society. It explains why we speak differently in different social contexts, and sociolinguistics is concerned with the social functions of language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning (Holmes, 2001:1). In addition, Wardhaugh (1986:13) states sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationships between languages and society with the goal of a better understanding of the structure of language and how language functions in communication.

Sociolingistics is scientific discipline developed from the co-operation of linguistics and sociology that investigates the social meaning of the language system and of language use, and the common set of conditions of linguistic and social structure. J.A Fishman (in Chaer, 2004:3) states that sociolinguistics is the study of characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact, change and change one another within a speech community. Halliday (in Sumarsono, 2002:2) defines sociolinguistics as the institutional linguistics deals with the relation between a language and the people who use it and Hudson (1996:4) defines sociolinguistics as the study of language in relation to society, implying (intentionally) that sociolinguistics is part of the study of language.

7 Sociolinguistics has so many functions in daily life since sociolinguistics explains on how people use the language in each aspects or the certain social condition, as states by Fishman (in Chaer, 2004:7) that sociolinguistics discusses ‘who speaks’, ‘what language’, ‘to whom’, ‘when’, and ‘to what end’. Therefore, the function of language can be seen through the speaker, the listener, the topic, the code, and the meaning. The study also explores the functions and the varieties of language, the contacts between different languages, attitude of people towards language use and user, changes of language, as well as plans on language.

There are numerous factors influencing the way people speak which are investigated by sociolinguistics.

(http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/sociolinguistics.htm):

a. Social class, the position of the speaker in the society, measured by the level of education, parental background, profession and their effect on syntax and lexis used by the speaker.

b. Social context, the register of the language used depending on changing situations, formal language in formal meetings and informal during meetings with friends for example.

c. Geographical origins, slight differences in pronunciation between speakers that point at the geographical region which the speaker comes from.

d. Ethnicity, differences between the use of a given language by its native speakers and other ethnic groups.

e. Nationality, clearly visible in the case of the English language: British English differs from American English, or Canadian English.

8 f. Gender, differences in patterns of language use between men and women,

such as quantity of speech, intonation patterns.

g. Age, the influence of age of the speaker on the use of vocabulary and grammar complexity.

2.2. Bilingualism

When two or more languages used alternately by the same speaker, it can be said that those languages interact each other. The use of two or more languages alternately by a speaker is called bilingualism. Mackey (1992:12) and Fishman (1975:73) in Abdul Chaer and Leonie Agustina stated that bilingualism means the use of two languages by a speaker in his society by turns. Someone who wants to use two languages, of course they must master the two languages. They must master their mother tongue and another language that becomes a second language. When people use two languages to interact with other people they become bilingual.

People sometime speak languages that they have mastered. When they know more than one language, they may use both of which in their conversation. People use more than one language that occurs in situation of social context, which is a situation where they learn a second language in their communities. In a situation where a person learns a second language, they can be divided between the situation of language learning, language acquisition and people who learn the language.

9 Nababan (1993:27) differs bilingualism and bilinguality. According to him, bilingualism is habitual to use two languages to interact with other people. Bilinguality is an ability to use two languages. So, we can conclude that bilingualism is habitual; bilinguality is ability and bilingual is the person.

Furthermore, Bloomfield (1933:56) defines the bilingualism as “ability of a speaker in using two languages, in case the using of first language as good as the second language”. According to Bloomfield, someone called bilingual if she/he able to use the first language as well as the second language. However, many arguments toward Bloomfield’s concept about bilingualism. First, it’s not easy to evaluate the ability of the speaker in mastering two languages that they use and second, is there any speaker that using the second language as well as first language, and it is rarely to find someone who master in two languages as well.

2.3. Code

Code is the particular language one chooses to use in any occasion, a system used for communication between two or more parties. When people are about to speak, they have to choose a particular code to express their minds of feeling. The particular code in this case can be a particular language, dialect, style, register, or variety. Therefore, in daily situation people may use different code in different situation.

In a bilingual or multilingual society, it is normal for the people to be in a situation where a choice between two or more codes has to be made. There are situations the bilinguals may want to consider for example, who speaks to them, in

10 which language or variety, and when or where the conversation takes place. To a bilingual or multilingual, although choosing a code is one of the routines, the skill in deciding which code should be chosen still needs developing. The skill of choosing the language is classified as a communicative competence and it is basically developed by observing factors found in the social context of language uses.

In other words, a code is a system of rules that allow us to give information in symbolic form. Human language is also a code, consist of words that represent ideas, events, and objects. When it put together in certain circumstance, it will help us to communicate.

Hymes (in Jendra, 2010: 71) states that, there are eight factors that bilingual, multilingual, or monolingual people may consider when choosing a code. The factors were formulated into an acronym, namely SPEAKING, which stands for Setting and Scene, Participants, Ends, Act sequence, Key, Instrumentalities, Norms of Interaction, and Genre.

a. Setting and Scene

The setting and scene are the places, occasions, or natural situations that can influence the people in choosing the code. People may consider choosing a more formal variety of language when talking in an office than when talking in a picnic place. A more moderate attitude in speaking is also found in a ritual or ceremonial occasion than in a street or supermarket.

11 b. Participants

The participants are the people involved in the communication found in the setting. A good public speaker for example, wants to know about his/her audience (the participants) before performing a speech. He/she may think of considering what kind of jokes he/she should tell or whether he/she should speak in a more casual way or formal one after considering the audience.

c. Ends

The ends are the goals or purposes that a speaker wishes to reach. If a political party delivers a speech in a campaign, he/she wishes to persuade the crowd before him/her in order to receive support for the election. However, if a mother speaks to her son before he lives for school, she might want her son to behave himself in the school. Thus, for different ends, speakers of a language often choose different code.

d. Act Sequence

The act sequence refers to the order of a speech, a narrative, a conversation, or a talking. It also refers to the form and the content of the speech.

e. Key

The key is referred to the manner, spirit, and feeling of the message wished to be captured within the conversation. It is also referred to the spirit captured in the voice or manner of a speaker. The spirit or the feeling may be sincere, modest, or low.

12 f. Instrumentalities

The Instrumentalities are referred to the register and forms of the speech. The forms that might be under consideration are whether it will be delivered in a more formal way or a casual friendly one.

g. Norms of Interaction and Interpretation

The norm of interaction is the contextual custom in using the code, including for example allowance for an interruption, using gestures freely, addressing an audience, eye contacts, distance, asking questions about belief, etc.

h. Genre

The genre is referred to the type of the utterances whether it is in the form of a poem, a proverb, a prayer, a lecture, and etc.

The factors described above have been one of the most important foundations in the general study of code choices. In a conversation we might not find the factors to be activated all together. To certain degree these factors in choosing a code might be also helpful to describe factors that influence other forms of language contact phenomenon, namely code switching and code mixing.

2.3.1 Code Switching

There is situation where speakers deliberately change a code being used, by switching from one to another. People are usually required to select a particular code whenever they choose to speak, and they may also decide to switch from one code to

13 another even within sometimes very short utterances and thereby create a new code in a process known as code switching.

(Wardaugh, 1986:100) says code switching is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, change interpersonal relation with their rights and obligation. Hymes (in Chaer, 1995:142) states that code switching has become a common term for alternate use of two or more language, varieties of language, or even speech styles. In code switching, the speaker changes the code as he/she redefine the situation, formal to informal, official to personal, serious to humorous, and politeness to solidarity.

Wardaugh (2010:101) describes two kinds of code switching, namely Situational Code Switching and Metaphorical Code Switching.

1. Situational Code Switching

Situational Code Switching occurs when the language used change according to the situations in which the conversant find themselves: they speak one language in one situation and another in a different one. No topic change involved. Here is the example:

Agus : Menurutku, semuanya karena mereka tidak tahu persis artinya De. Mark : Hi, Agus.

Agus : Eh, how are you Mark? Mark, this is Made, our friend from Mataram. Made : Nice to meet you, Mark.

Mark : Nice to meet you too. What are you talking about? Agus : Nah, ini dia kita bisa... Mark, can you help us?

14 2. Metaphorical Code Switching

Metaphorical Code Switching occurs when a change of topic requires a change in the language used. The interesting point here is that some topics may be discussed in either code, but the choices of code a distinct flavor to what is said about the topic. Here is the example:

Made : We want to take it, to where... Ya, itu tempat kita biasa mancing, and we are drinking, singing, having fun, OK.

Ali : And, there we are surfing, swimming... terus, kita jadi pusing pusing dah... ha ha ha...

Made : Are you joining, Jim?

Jim : Okay, then.

2.3.2 Causal Factors of Code Switching

From the definitions above, it is learned that code switching is found more with bilingual or multilingual speakers, although monolinguals may actually be said to switch from a variety or style to another. Jendra (2010:74) says that several reasons why bilinguals do code switching. Among the most obvious factors are namely, quoting someone, marking and emphasizing group identity or solidarity, including or excluding someone from a conversation, raising status, and showing language expertise.

15 Ohowaitun (1996:71), states that the case code switching happens for some factors such as the relationship between the speaker and the listener, the purpose of speaking, the discussed topic, time and place the conversation takes place.

Fishman (in Chaer, 1995:143) states in accordance to the causal factors of code switching that is ‘siapa berbicara’, ‘dengan bahasa apa’, ‘kepada siapa’, ‘kapan’, dan ‘dengan tujuan apa’ (‘who speak’, ‘what language’, ‘to whom’, ‘when’, and ‘to what end’).

2.3.3 Code Mixing

Code mixing is a mixing of two codes or languages, usually without a change of topic. Code mixing is the change of one language to another within the same utterance or in the same oral/written text. Code mixing is found mainly in informal interactions. In formal situation, the speaker tends to mix it because there is no exact idiom in that language, therefore, it is necessary to use words or idioms from other language, as stated by Nababan (1993:32)

“Ciri yang menonjol dalam campur kode ini adalah kesantaian atau situasi informal. Dalam situasi berbahasa yang formal, jarang terdapat campur kode. Kalau terdapat campur kode dalam keadaan yang demikian, itu disebabkan karena tidak ada ungkapan yang tepat dalam bahasa yang dipakai itu, sehingga perlu memakai kata atau ungkapan dari bahasa asing.”

Code mixing is the mixing of pieces of a word or phrase from a language into the other language in a bilingualism and multilingualism. The bilingual or multilingual usually mix their language because of the social factors. People sometimes are aware when they mix their language with pieces of words or phrase

16 from other language. This means that in code-mixing, bilinguals or multilingual usually inserts phrases or words from other language when he/she has a conversation, they mix a language with the other language.

The sentences below are the samples of Code Mixing cases of bilinguals single utterance in which a form of Code Mixing involves Indonesian, English, Spanish, Japanese.

• A Spanish bilingual mixes Spanish and English, e.g: No van a bring it up in the meeting. (Jendra, 2010:81) • A Japanese bilingual mixes Japanese and English, e.g:

Watashi was waseda graduate shimashita. (in Azuma, 1993) in Jendra, 2010:81).

Wardaugh (2010:98) divides code mixing into two kinds named Inter-sential code mixing and Intra-sential code mixing.

1. Inter-sential code mixing

An inter-sential code mixing happens when there is a complete sentence in a foreign language uttered between two sentences in a base language. For the example:

• An Indonesian bilingual mixes Indonesian and English, e.g. Ini lagu lama, tahun 60an. It’s oldies but goodies, they say. Tapi, masih enak kok didengerin.

• A Spanish bilingual mixes Spanish and English, e.g. No. Se porque. I never used it.

17 2. Intra-sential code mixing

Intra-sential code mixing is found when a word, a phrase, or a clause, of a foreign language is found within the sentence in a base language. For example:

• An English bilingual mixes English and French, e.g. The hotel, il est grand, is really huge and unbelievably majestic.

• A Tanzania bilingual mixes Swahili and English, e.g. He accident ilitokea alipose control Na Aka overturn and landed in a ditch.

Suwito (1983:76-78) devides code mixing in two kinds. They are:

1. Inner Code Mixing (campur kode kedalam)

“Campur kode kedalam (inner code mixing) adalah campur kode yang bersumber dari bahasa asli dengan segala variasinya”. Inner code mixing occurs if the speaker inserts the elements of his/her own language into national language, the elements of dialect into his/her own language, or elements of varieties and style into his/her dialect. Code mixing and the elements of a regional language show that the speaker has a regional language in stuff, or want to show his regional language characteristic.

2. Outer Code Mixing (campur kode keluar)

“Campur kode keluar (outer code mixing) adalah campur kode yang berasal dari bahasa asing”. For example, the elements of Holland code switching inserted in Indonesian language. It shows that the speaker belongs to the old century, students and special man/woman. Code mixing in English

18 language can give the impression that the speaker is a modern, educated and has good relationship in society. Code mixing with in the elements of Arabic shows that the speaker is Islamic, obedient, or a devout person.

2.3.4 Causal Factors of Code Mixing

There are some factors that cause people to do code mixing. Breadsmore (1982:38) states that factors that cause people do code mixing are:

a. Bilingualism

It cannot be avoided that the ability to use to speak more than one language is a basic factor of code mixing. Most of the world's population is bilingual or multilingual.

b. Speaker and Partner Speaking

Communication is the process of expressing ideas between two participants of conversation. Speaker needs partner to communicate and code mixing could appear if both use and understand it well.

c. Social Community

An individual lives and cooperates in one community either in monolingual or bilingual community. Now most communities are bilingual that use two languages in their interactions. In this case, an individual will be influenced by social community directly.

19 d. Situation

Usually code mixing occurs in relax or informal situation. This situation is closer with daily conversation and for writer is also describe as their habitual communication.

e. Vocabulary

There is not appropriate word or when there is a lack of vocabulary in one language. The inability to find an appropriate word or expression in one language makes people change the word or phrase from one to another language and it can be combined together.

f. Prestige

Globalization era has made people must speak more than one language, especially English. For many young people code mixing becomes own style which is hoped to be modern and educational one.

14 2. Metaphorical Code Switching

Metaphorical Code Switching occurs when a change of topic requires a change in the language used. The interesting point here is that some topics may be discussed in either code, but the choices of code a distinct flavor to what is said about the topic. Here is the example:

Made : We want to take it, to where... Ya, itu tempat kita biasa mancing, and we are drinking, singing, having fun, OK.

Ali : And, there we are surfing, swimming... terus, kita jadi pusing pusing dah... ha ha ha...

Made : Are you joining, Jim?

Jim : Okay, then.

2.3.2 Causal Factors of Code Switching

From the definitions above, it is learned that code switching is found more with bilingual or multilingual speakers, although monolinguals may actually be said to switch from a variety or style to another. Jendra (2010:74) says that several reasons why bilinguals do code switching. Among the most obvious factors are namely, quoting someone, marking and emphasizing group identity or solidarity, including or excluding someone from a conversation, raising status, and showing language expertise.

15 Ohowaitun (1996:71), states that the case code switching happens for some factors such as the relationship between the speaker and the listener, the purpose of speaking, the discussed topic, time and place the conversation takes place.

Fishman (in Chaer, 1995:143) states in accordance to the causal factors of code switching that is ‘siapa berbicara’, ‘dengan bahasa apa’, ‘kepada siapa’, ‘kapan’, dan ‘dengan tujuan apa’ (‘who speak’, ‘what language’, ‘to whom’, ‘when’, and ‘to what end’).

2.3.3 Code Mixing

Code mixing is a mixing of two codes or languages, usually without a change of topic. Code mixing is the change of one language to another within the same utterance or in the same oral/written text. Code mixing is found mainly in informal interactions. In formal situation, the speaker tends to mix it because there is no exact idiom in that language, therefore, it is necessary to use words or idioms from other language, as stated by Nababan (1993:32)

“Ciri yang menonjol dalam campur kode ini adalah kesantaian atau situasi informal. Dalam situasi berbahasa yang formal, jarang terdapat campur kode. Kalau terdapat campur kode dalam keadaan yang demikian, itu disebabkan karena tidak ada ungkapan yang tepat dalam bahasa yang dipakai itu, sehingga perlu memakai kata atau ungkapan dari bahasa asing.”

Code mixing is the mixing of pieces of a word or phrase from a language into the other language in a bilingualism and multilingualism. The bilingual or multilingual usually mix their language because of the social factors. People sometimes are aware when they mix their language with pieces of words or phrase

16 from other language. This means that in code-mixing, bilinguals or multilingual usually inserts phrases or words from other language when he/she has a conversation, they mix a language with the other language.

The sentences below are the samples of Code Mixing cases of bilinguals single utterance in which a form of Code Mixing involves Indonesian, English, Spanish, Japanese.

• A Spanish bilingual mixes Spanish and English, e.g: No van a bring it up in the meeting. (Jendra, 2010:81) • A Japanese bilingual mixes Japanese and English, e.g:

Watashi was waseda graduate shimashita. (in Azuma, 1993) in Jendra, 2010:81).

Wardaugh (2010:98) divides code mixing into two kinds named Inter-sential code mixing and Intra-sential code mixing.

1. Inter-sential code mixing

An inter-sential code mixing happens when there is a complete sentence in a foreign language uttered between two sentences in a base language. For the example:

• An Indonesian bilingual mixes Indonesian and English, e.g. Ini lagu lama, tahun 60an. It’s oldies but goodies, they say. Tapi, masih enak kok didengerin.

• A Spanish bilingual mixes Spanish and English, e.g. No. Se porque. I never used it.

17 2. Intra-sential code mixing

Intra-sential code mixing is found when a word, a phrase, or a clause, of a foreign language is found within the sentence in a base language. For example:

• An English bilingual mixes English and French, e.g. The hotel, il est grand, is really huge and unbelievably majestic.

• A Tanzania bilingual mixes Swahili and English, e.g. He accident ilitokea alipose control Na Aka overturn and landed in a ditch.

Suwito (1983:76-78) devides code mixing in two kinds. They are:

1. Inner Code Mixing (campur kode kedalam)

“Campur kode kedalam (inner code mixing) adalah campur kode yang bersumber dari bahasa asli dengan segala variasinya”. Inner code mixing occurs if the speaker inserts the elements of his/her own language into national language, the elements of dialect into his/her own language, or elements of varieties and style into his/her dialect. Code mixing and the elements of a regional language show that the speaker has a regional language in stuff, or want to show his regional language characteristic.

2. Outer Code Mixing (campur kode keluar)

“Campur kode keluar (outer code mixing) adalah campur kode yang berasal dari bahasa asing”. For example, the elements of Holland code switching inserted in Indonesian language. It shows that the speaker belongs to the old century, students and special man/woman. Code mixing in English

18 language can give the impression that the speaker is a modern, educated and has good relationship in society. Code mixing with in the elements of Arabic shows that the speaker is Islamic, obedient, or a devout person.

2.3.4 Causal Factors of Code Mixing

There are some factors that cause people to do code mixing. Breadsmore (1982:38) states that factors that cause people do code mixing are:

a. Bilingualism

It cannot be avoided that the ability to use to speak more than one language is a basic factor of code mixing. Most of the world's population is bilingual or multilingual.

b. Speaker and Partner Speaking

Communication is the process of expressing ideas between two participants of conversation. Speaker needs partner to communicate and code mixing could appear if both use and understand it well.

c. Social Community

An individual lives and cooperates in one community either in monolingual or bilingual community. Now most communities are bilingual that use two languages in their interactions. In this case, an individual will be influenced by social community directly.

19 d. Situation

Usually code mixing occurs in relax or informal situation. This situation is closer with daily conversation and for writer is also describe as their habitual communication.

e. Vocabulary

There is not appropriate word or when there is a lack of vocabulary in one language. The inability to find an appropriate word or expression in one language makes people change the word or phrase from one to another language and it can be combined together.

f. Prestige

Globalization era has made people must speak more than one language, especially English. For many young people code mixing becomes own style which is hoped to be modern and educational one.