Els students` lived experience of project based learning

ELS STUDENTS’ LIVED EXPERIENCE

OF

PROJECT-BASED LEARNING

A Thesis Presented to

The Graduate Program in English Language Studies In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.)

in

English Language Studies

by Sandy Ferianda

146332022

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2017

i

ELS STUDENTS’ LIVED EXPERIENCE

OF

PROJECT-BASED LEARNING

A Thesis Presented to

The Graduate Program in English Language Studies In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.)

in

English Language Studies

by Sandy Ferianda

146332022

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2017

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LEMBAR PERI\IYATAAI\I PERSETUJUAI\

PUBLIKASI KARYA ITMIAH T]NTUK KEPENTINGAII AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama

:

Sandy Ferianda

NIM :

146332022

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma, karya ilmiah saya yangberjudul:

.

_{ELS STUDENTS'LIYED EXPERIENCE OF}

PROJECT.BASED LEARI\IING.

beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyiryrpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikannya di

Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tefup rencantumkan saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal: 16 Februari 2017

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

After completion of this thesis, I would like to thank Allah S.W.T, for the wonderful blessing, for the endless love and timeless guidance and for the strength given to me. I do believe that this thesis would have never come to its completion without remarkable help and blessing from Allah S.W.T.

My deepest gratitude goes to my only one sponsor, BapakF.X. Mukarto, Ph.D. for his guidance and assistance during the process, his willingness to spend his time reading and correcting my thesis, and his advice as well as his encouragement from the beginning of the research until the accomplishment of this thesis. I am also grateful to all Thesis Reviewers and Examiners, Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A., Dr. J. Bismoko, Paulus Sarwoto, Ph.D. and the other Graduate Program lecturers at Sanata Dharma University for the guidance throughout my study time in the ELS Sanata Dharma University.

My special regards and gratitude are presented to my beloved family, Papa

Sugianto, Mama Farida Efriyani, and Ayuk Selvi Kartika Sari who always gave me never ending support, encouragement and prayer. I thank for the spirit in life that encourages me to do the best in this life.

I truthfully want to thank to my best friends Mba Pipit, Mba Fika, Mba

Ajeng, Mas Lian, Mas Wawan, Marita, and all ELS students batch of 2014 who have given me their care and support. I also would like to thank my colleagues in PT PMA MINDO Small Business Solution, Yogyakarta. They have been part of my life and I hope that our friendship will never end. I would never forget to thank everyone who had supported the completion of this thesis that I cannot mention. May God bless them all!

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE ... i

ADVISOR’S APPROVAL PAGE ... ii

THESIS COMMITTEE’S APPROVAL PAGE ... iii

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ... iv

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vii

LIST OF FIGURES ... x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... xi

LIST OF APPENDICES ... xii

ABSTRACT ... xiii

ABSTRAK ... xiv

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A.Background of the Study ... 1

B.Problem Limitation ... 3

C.Problem Formulation ... 5

D.Research Goal ... 5

E. Benefits of the Study ... 5

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A.Theoretical Review ... 7

1. Lived Experience ... 7

a. Principles in Lived Experience ... 12

1) Turning to thre Nature of Lived Experience ... 12

2) Investigating Experience As We Live It ... 13

3) Hermeneutic Phenomenological Reflection ... 14

4) Hermeneutic Phenomenological Writing ... 15

5) Maintaining A Strong and Oriented Reflection ... 15

6) Balancing the Research Context by Considering Parts and Whole ... 16

b. Fields in Lived Experience ... 16

1) Understanding ... 17

2) Belief ... 17

3) Intention ... 18

4) Action ... 18

5) Feeling ... 19

2. Project-Based Learning ... 21

viii

b. Principal Features of Project-Based Learning ... 25

c. Authentic Learning ... 26

d. Learner Autonomy ... 29

e. Cooperative Learning ... 30

f. Multiple Intelligences ... 32

g. Steps of Project Development ... 34

1) Starting the Project ... 35

2) Developing the Project ... 35

3) Reporting to the Class ... 35

4) Assessing the Project ... 35

h. Assessment of PBL ... 36

i. Benefits of PBL in Language Learning ... 37

1) Gaining Language Proficiency, Self-Efficacy, and Self-Esteem ... 37

2) Using Real-Life Language and Experiencing Language in Meaningful Life Situations ... 37

3) Developing Motivation, Self-Confidence and the Cognitive Domain in Second or Foreign Language Learning ... 38

j. Challenges in Implementing PBL ... 38

1) Time-Management ... 39

2) Crafting Questions ... 39

3) Keeping Focus ... 39

3. English Language Studies (ELS) ... 40

B.Framework of Pre-figured Understanding ... 41

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A.Research Method ... 44

B.Research Design ... 45

1. Specified Goal ... 46

2. Context ... 46

3. Procedures ... 46

4. Components ... 48

C.Instrument ... 50

D.Texts Gathering ... 50

E. Texts Processing ... 51

F. Trustworthiness of the Findings ... 53

CHAPTER IV DESCRIPTIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS A.Description of the Participants’ Lived Experience ... 54

1. Dewi’s Story ... 54

2. Evi’s Story ... 61

ix

B.Interpretation of the Participants’ Lived Experience ... 72

1. Pre-figured Meanings ... 72

a. Authentic Learning ... 73

b. Learner Autonomy ... 76

c. Cooperative Learning ... 80

d. Multiple Intelligences ... 85

2. Emergent Meanings ... 88

a. Understanding Others ... 89

b. Personal Development ... 91

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS A.Conclusions ... 97

B.Implications ... 100

C.Recommendations ... 101

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 103

x

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Framework of Pre-Understanding ………... 43

Figure 3.1. Research Design ………...……… 45

Figure 3.2. Research Procedure ………...…… 47

xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ABP : Association of Business Practioners

APOT : Appreciate Others

BAL : British American Literature CDA : Critical Discourse Analysis

COPG : Communicate Progress

CTS : Critical Thinking Skill

DCP : Discipline

DINT : Different Intelligences

ELESP : English Language Education Study Program

ELS : English Language Studies

ENOP : Enlarge Opportunities

EXIN : Explore Interest

FtFP : Face-to-Face Promotive

GRP : Group Processing

IA : Individual Accountability

INTV : Initiative

INDP : Independent

LC : Literary Criticism

L-CS : Learner-Centred Setting

LLTC : Language and Language Teaching Conference

MADE : Making Decision

NEGO : Negotiation

OM : Open-Minded

P-SS : Problem-Solving Skill

PBL : Project-Based Learning

PMD : Project and Material Design

RESP : Responsibility

RWT : Real-World Task

SEFF : Self-Efficacy

SEST : Self-Esteem

SPD : Service Program Design

TW : Team Work

UOCH : Understanding Others’ Characters

UON : Understanding Others’ Needs

xii

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1 Informed Consent Form 1 (DEWI) ……… 110

APPENDIX 2 Informed Consent Form 2 (EVI) ………... 111

APPENDIX 3 Informed Consent Form 3 (ATA) ………... 112

APPENDIX 4 In-Depth Interview 1 (DEWI) ………... 113

APPENDIX 5 In-Depth Interview 1 (EVI) ………... 125

APPENDIX 6 In-Depth Interview 1 (ATA) ………. 137

APPENDIX 7 In-Depth Interview 2 (DEWI) ………... 144

APPENDIX 8 In-Depth Interview 2 (EVI) ………... 152

xiii ABSTRACT

Sandy Ferianda. 2016. ELS students’ lived experience of project-basedlearning. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

This research was actually inspired by my own story when I was in the first, second, and third semester. From the first until the third semester, my lecturers always asked the students to create certain projects or assignments individually or in group. The projects or assignments were various such as making mini research, writing academic papers, and designing learning materials. Then I realized that my lecturers were actually implementing project-based learning (PBL) in the classroom. This research mainly focused on the lived experience of the English Language Studies (ELS) students. I tried to discover the meaning of the phenomenon of project-based learning implemented by most of the lecturers. Additionally, this research aimed at describing and interpreting the shared lived experience of the ELS students. In this study, I provided three main theories which were very helpful in exploring the concept of the study. They are lived experience, project based learning and ELS. Those theories acted as a means for me to construct the instruments as well as to create the framework of understanding and pre-figured meanings.

This study was a hermeneutic phenomenology study. It was phenomenology since it had a close relation to description, and it was hermeneutic as it had a close relation to interpretation. The participants were three illuminating students coming from the graduate program in English Language Studies (ELS) in Sanata Dharma University batch of 2015. They were from three different streams namely education, linguistics, and literature. Moreover, I administered an interview guideline as the instrument for collecting the data. In doing the interview, I employed one-on-one interview. In order to validate the findings of the research I then, used member checking as the trustworthiness for the study.

The findings of this study were the description and interpretation of three

participants’ lived experience of project-based learning. There were four pre-figured meanings and two emergent meanings based on the interpretation of the

participants’ lived experiences. The pre-figured meanings were determined based on the logical truth. On the other hand, the emergent meanings were found during the research process or the empirical truth. In the pre-figured meanings, logically, there were four main types of assigned meanings namely authentic learning, learner autonomy, cooperative learning, and multiple intelligences. Empirically, there were two emergent meanings assigned in this study namely understanding others and personal development. Those two meanings were emerged during the interview.

Lastly, this research was expected to give implications for first the audience that would have better empathic understanding, second ELS lecturers are about to implement the project-based learning in the following academic years, and other teachers or lecturers from other study programs. Recommendations are also addressed to the ELS students as their habit formation, to the ELS lecturers as their inputs to give more feedbacks to the students, and to the future researchers.

xiv

ABSTRAK

Sandy Ferianda. 2016. ELS students’ lived experience of project-basedlearning. Yogyakarta: Program Pasca Sarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Penelitian ini terinspirasi dari cerita saya sendiri ketika di semester satu, dua, dan tiga. Sejak semester pertama sampai ketiga, dosen kerap menugaskan mahasiswa untuk membuat proyek atau tugas tertentu baik secara individu atau berkelompok. Tugas atau proyek yang ditugaskan bentuknya bermacam-macam seperti penelitian kecil, menulis makalah akademis, dan mendesain materi pembelajaran. Saat itu, saya menyadari bahwa dosen mengaplikasikan pembelajaran berbasis proyek di kelas. Penelitian ini berfokus pada pengalaman hidup dari mahasiswa Kajian Bahasa Inggris (KBI). Saya mencoba untuk menemukan makna dari fenomena pembelajaran berbasis proyek yang diterapkan oleh dosen. Penelitian ini juga bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan dan menginterpretasikan pengalaman hidup yang diceritakan oleh mahasiswa Kajian Bahasa Inggris. Dalam penelitian ini, saya menggunakan tiga teori yang berfungsi untuk mencari kebenaran logis dari penelitian ini. Teori-teori tersebut adalah pengalaman hidup, pembelajaran berbasis proyek, dan KBI. Ketiga teori tersebut berperan sebagai alat bantu untuk membuat instrumen dan kerangka dari pemahaman awal, dan tema awal.

Penelitian ini adalah penelitian fenomenologi hermeneutika. Fenomenologi karena berhubungan erat dengan pendeskripsian dan hermeneutika karena berhubungan erat dengan penginterpretasian. Partisipan dalam peneltian ini adalah tiga orang mahasiswa angkatan 2015 dari program pascasasarjana KBI Universitas Sanata Dharma yang berasal dari tiga konsentrasi berbeda yaitu pendidikan, lingustik, dan kesusastraan. Selanjutnya, acuan wawancara digunakan sebagai instrumen untuk mengumpulkan data. Saat melakukan wawancara, saya menggunakan teknik wawancara one-on-one. Untuk memvalidasi hasil dari penelitian ini saya menggunakan member checking.

Hasil dari penelitian ini berupa deskripsi dan interpretasi pengalaman hidup ketiga partisipan tentang pembelajaran berbasis proyek. Ada empat makna awal dan dua makna yang muncul pada bagian. Makna awal ditentukan dari kebenaran logis dan makna yang muncul ditemukan ketika proses penelitian. Secara logis, ada empat makna awal yakni pembelajaran otentik, otonomi siswa, pembelajaran kooperatif, dan kecerdasan majemuk. Secara empiris, makna yang muncul adalah mengerti orang lain dan perkembangan pribadi.

Terakhir, penelitian ini diharapkan untuk memberikan implikasi kepada khalayak agar memiliki pengertian empati, dosen program studi KBI yang akan menggunakan pembelajaran berbasis proyek pada tahun ajaran berikutnya, dan dosen dari program studi lain. Saran juga ditujukan kepada mahasiswa KBI untuk pembentukan kebiasaan, dosen KBI untuk lebih memberikan masukan kepada mahasiswa, dan peneliti selanjutnya.

1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

It may be useful to state at the beginning what my intention in this study is and what interest a reader my have in it. In this study, I aim at finding out the ELS

students’ lived experience of the implementation of Project Based Learning in the

graduate program of English Language Studies based on their shared lived experiences.

In this chapter, therefore, I begin with an introductory chapter which consists of five sections, namely (a) background of the study, (b) problem limitation, (c) problem formulation, (d) research goals, and (e) benefits of the study.

A. Background of the Study

From the first semester of my master degree program, my lecturers always asked the students to create certain projects or assignments in groups or individually. For instance, making a presentation towards certain issues, making academic papers, designing an English program, and many others. I realized that this phenomenon is really interesting since we were not taught as if we were in the traditional school in which teachers always take control of the activities in the class. However, what I experienced was my lecturers, my friends, and I were together constructing the course programs for the entire semester. The syllabus and the activities were already made by the lecturers and all we needed to do was choosing the topics which we thought interesting and discussing any possibilities related to the course.

In fact, not all assignments were done individually. We were also given a chance to finish our projects in group. I found it very enjoyful since my lecturers sometime gave freedom to choose the friends to work with, and to choose the topic we were interested in. Besides, I could also discuss the problems with my friends as well as my lecturers when we found difficulties.

Based on my true story, I realized that my lecturers were actually implementing the Project-Based Learning model in the class. Indeed, teachers commonly apply or implement the learning model which is appropriate to the students. One of the learning models is project-based learning model. Project-based learning (PBL) is an instructional model that is based in the constructivist approach to learning, which entails the construction of knowledge with multiple perspectives, within a social activity, and allows for self-awareness of learning and knowing while being context dependent (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). Thomas (2000) sets five criteria for PBL: projects should be central to the curriculum, focused on problems that drive the students to struggle with major concepts, involve the students in constructivist investigation, student-driven, and realistic. Furthermore, Grant (2002) discusses that common features to PBL implementation are an anchor of the activity, a task, an investigation, provision of resources, scaffolding, collaboration, and opportunities for reflection and transfer.

In this study, I attempt to find out the English Language Studies (ELS)

students’ lived experience of the project-based learning implemented by the lecturers. I am interested in conducting a research on that topic since the project-based learning is often used by the ELS lecturers in the teaching-learning process in order to make the students learn independently. For example, the students are

requested to produce a portfolio, a research report based on a mini research, a sample of materials, and some other activities. Referring to the activities mentioned previously, this is also in line with the concept of project-based learning proposed by Bell (2010). Bell states that project-based learning is an instructional method centred on the learner. Students develop a question and are guided through

research under the teacher‘s supervision.

Most related research or studies tend to discuss the activity of the project based learning, the implementation as well as assesment for the model, and the effect of project based learning on students’ achievement. I find no similar research reports related to the lived experience of the project based learning like what I, in this study, would conduct. One example of the research reports is done by Gökhan

Baş (2011). He was doing a research on investigating the effects of project based learning. In short, the participants of his study were the Turkish students. In regards to the research on lived experience or related studies, I personally have not yet found any research reports discussing the lived experience on project based learning. Hopefully, after doing or conducting this hermeneutic phenomenology research, this can enrich and fill the gap for the betterment of English Learning.

B. Problem Limitation

This study, then, delimited on how the ELS students perceive their lived experience of project based learning. Hermeneutic phenomenology proposed by Van Manen (1990) was then employed as the most proper methodology in

discovering the lived experience of the ELS students’ lived experience. Her meneutic phenomenology was then choses as it is line with the purposes of this

study which are to describe and to interpret the students’ lived experience of the implementation of project based learning.

Additional delimitiation included the limited fund and time. This study delimited to three students from the graduate program of ELS Sanata Dharma University. Those three participants were choses without considering their age, gender, family background, and employment background. They were chosen based on the illumination aspect. In other words, the participants were those who could give rich descriptions of their lived experience and were willing to share them. With the limitation on the number of the participants, I then expected to gain the rich and meaningful descriptions from them which futher could be elaborated.

Thus, this study is then to limit the focus which on on discussing the implementation of the project based learning based on the ELS students’ shared lived experience. In regards to the lived experience of the students, thus, the source of the data will be mainly based on the shared stories of the students. The other limitation is the natural tendency of the participants to forget or mislead their past memories and events in the time they were being asked to remember about their experience.

C. Problem Formulation

The project based learning is one of the learning models which the educators can apply in the classroom. In this context of research, the project based learning model is applied or implemented by the lecturers of ELS. In relation to the intention of this research which I have previously stated at the beginning of this chapter, the

students’ lived experiences are gained from what the students really experience in

the process of their learning. Hence, the question or the problem of the study is formulated as follows: what is the lived experience of ELS students of the project-based learning like?

D. Research Goals

In this research, the reseacher aimed at describing and interpreting the ELS

students’ interpretation of Project Based Learning as one of the learning methods

used in the classroom based on their lived experience. By doing so, I expect to

obtain the essential meanings of the students’ lived experiences. Therefore,

hopefully, the students can have more reflective life so that they can succeed in their study. Furthermore, it is also expected that the audience can gain more emphatic understanding on the essential meanings of the lived experiences of the students.

E. Benefits of the Study

As the research attempts to describe and interprets the students’ lived

experience of the project based learning, I expects that the research will provide some contributions or benefits. There were three benefits which can be obtained from this research. Since this research is conducted in the educational area, I expects that this research can give contribution to English language teaching in Indonesia.

Firstly, since the project-based learning model is implemented by the lecturers, thus this research is expected to give a clear description of the students’

lived experience about the learning model. Moreover, by knowing the students’

lived experience, the lecturers can discover the strengths and also the weaknesses of this learning model. Therefore, in the future, the implementation of the learning model can be applied better.

Secondly, this study is also beneficial to the students who are chosen to be the participants of this study, since they can share their own experiences, feelings, obstacles, enjoyment, and expectations. Moreoever, it is also expected that after sharing their lived experiences, the students can have more reflective life for the betterment of their study.

Thirdly, I expect that this study can inspire or motivate other researchers. Moreover, future researchers who are going to conduct a similar study related to the project based learning will be helped through this research. Through the completion of this reseach also, the rersearcher expects that the future researchers could also find another interesting thing which they can conduct a research on.

7 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter discusses theoretical review and framework of pre-understanding. Theoretical review deals with theories underlying this study. Framework of pre-understanding deals with how the theories are logically constructed as well as deals with the pre-figured themes related to the themes that appear in the pre-figured themes.

A.Theoretical Review

In this section I will then review three main theories which become the construct of this study. They are lived experience, project-based learning, and ELS.

1. Lived Experience

Lived experience becomes one of the problems which is investigated in the phenomenology study. Cresswell (2007, p.57) states that phenomenology study figures out that the meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon. Lived experience is also described as a phenomenon and it involves description and interpretation of the phenomenon. Van Manen (1990, p. 1) states that the researchers create questions, collect data, describe a phenomenon, and build textual interpretations. Lived experience has a close relation with the pedagogy. Pedagogy leads to the essence of lived experience. As Van Manen (1990, p.2) states that pedagogy is one of the activities that relates to teaching, parenting, educating, or generally living with children, that demands constant practical acting in concrete situations and relation. In conclusion, the lived experience itself is based on certain phenomenon in the real life situations.

Lived experience itself has a close relation to the meaning of a phenomenon. It is trying to find out the meaning in depth beyond the phenomenon which emerges. Van Manen (1990, p. 11) emphasizes that the phenomenology is human science as the subject matter of phenomenological study is the structures of meaning of the lived human world. Hence, it can be concluded that phenomenology is close to the human living in relation to the meaning of the lived experience.

The main purpose of phenomenology study is to humanize human being (Van Manen, 1990, p.21). It attempts to provide a better life quality to the human beings by using description and interpretation. Description deals with the quality of lived experience and interpretation deals with the meaning of something (Van Manen, 1990, pp. 25-26). Additionally, phenomenology also reveals the core of lived experience in discovering the meaning. The main purpose of a phenomenological research based on Dahlberg (2001) is the description and explanation of the everyday world in a way that enlarges our understanding of human experience.

According to Van Manen (1990, p. 13) the definitions of phenomenology research are divided into eight definitions. The first is phenomenology research is closely related to the lived experience. Phenomenology attempts to comprehend the meaning of experience. The second is phenomenology elucidates the phenomena after the consciousness process. The phenomena is explained after people have awareness of their experience. The third is phenomenology research has a close relations to the study of essence. Phenomenology seeks to find out the essence of the meaning from lived experience. The fourth definition is phenomenology research can be described as a description of experiential meaning. Its aim is to

describe and interpret the meaning in depth. The fifth is phenomenology research is a study about phenomena of human scientific. It also refers to intersubjective study where the participant consists of more than one person in order to find out the

participant’s lived experience. The sixth is phenomenology research is the practice of attentive thoughtfulness. It aims at giving attention to the participants’ story or

reflection. The seventh is phenomenology relates to the meaning of being a human being. It is also in line with what Van Manen has early stated in his book. He states that phenomenology research has an ultimate goal, it is the fulfilment of our human nature: to become more fully who we are (Van Manen, 1990, p. 12). The eighth is phenomenology research is a poetizing activity. Van Manen (1990, p. 13) emphasizes that what people have to do is finding out what lies at the ontological core of our being.

Phenomenology deals with description and hermeneutic deals with interpretation. Interpretation possesses two notions according to Gadamer and Husserl. Gadamer as cited by Van Manen (1990, p. 26) describes that interpretation attempts to point to something, and interpretation attempts to point out the meaning of something.

Hermeneutics is closely related to interpretation. It has some definitions according to Palmer (1969, pp. 33-45). The first is hermeneutics as a theory of biblical exegesis. It means that hermeneutics is as the basis for the interpretation of the bible. The second is hermeneutics as the science of linguistic understanding. It means that understanding is close to the linguistic interpretation. The third is hermeneutics as the phenomenology of Dasein and of existential understanding. It relates to understanding the existence of human being. The last is hermeneutics as

a system of interpretation which means that hermeneutics relates to the interpretation.

Lived experience discusses themes. Van Manen (1990, p.87) states several meaning of themes. First, theme relates to the experience of meaning. Moreover, theme, itself, can be either empirical or transcendent. Second, theme relates to simplification of experience. Third, theme is intransitive. Fourth, theme relates to take out the phenomenon and try to understand it. Thus, theme makes the researcher focuses on certain phenomenon to dig out the meaning of lived experience.

Phenomenology also deals with reflection. Alvesson (2000, p.6) states that reflection can be described as consistently considering various basic dimensions behind and in the work of interpretation, by means of which it can be qualified. It means the reflection of the lived experience. In conclusion, lived experience is reflected by the past experience of the participants. Likewise, Van Manen (1990, p. 101) has the same concept as Alvesson in defining the concept of reflection. He states that the goal of phenomenology reflection is trying to absorb the core meaning of something. Moreover, he also emphasizes that reflection is taken from four aspects, namely lived space (spatiality), lived body (corporeality), lived time (temporality), and lived human relation (relationality or communality). In brief, lived space provides a clear direction why human being commits to do certain phenomenon since lived space provides certain space of how human being acts. Lived body provides clues of lived experience through the physical expressions. Lived time gives clues of criteria era where the human being lives. Lived human relation gives clues of the relation of human being in certain conditions.

In obtaining the reflective research, there must be some pointers. Alvesson & Skoldberg (2011) states four pointers in the reflective research. First, it relates to systematic and techniques in research procedures. It means that logical reasoning must be included. Second, it relates to the clarification of interpretation. It is needed to obtain the appropriate interpretation. Third, it relates to the awareness of political-ideological character of research. It relates to the lived space where the human being lives. Fourth, it relates to the problem of representation and authority. It relates to how the reflection discovers the problem presentation.

Anecdote is a part of lived experience. Van Manen (1990, p. 69) states that

“an anecdote is a certain kind of narrative point, and it is this point that needs honing”. Further, anecdote is “methodological device in human science to make

comprehensible some notion that easily eludes us” (Van Manen, 1990, p. 116). Anecdote must be realized so that the researcher can find the true meaning of lived experience.

In digging out the meaning, Moustakas (1990, pp. 16-26) explains some ways related to digging out the meaning. The first way is self-dialogue. It tries to make someone has his or her self-dialogue of the lived experience. The second is tacit knowing. It is closely related to the power of uncovering the lived experience. The third is intuition, it has a close relation to the searching the pattern and relationship of lived experience. The fourth is indwelling. It aims at searching the deeper meaning of lived experience. The fifth is focusing. It attempts to search the meaning focusing on research question. The last is internal frame of reference. It is closely related to the open and trustworthy of the human beings in discovering their lived experience.

Lived experience is one of the types of qualitative research inquiries. Cresswell (2012, p. 16) states one of the characteristics in the qualitative research

is “analyzing the data for description and themes using text analysis and interpreting the larger meaning of the findings”. Lived experience deals with a phenomenon. A phenomenon is a concept in the qualitative research. Cresswell (2012, p. 16) states

that “a central phenomenon is the key concept, idea, or process studied in qualitative research”.

a. Principles in Lived Experience

Lived experience has six basic principles. They will be discussed further in this section.

1) Turning to the Nature of Lived Experience

Dilthey as cited by Van Manen (1990, p. 35) states that its most basic form lived experience involves our immediate, pre-reflective consciousness of life: a reflexive or self-given awareness which is, as awareness, unaware of itself. It means that lived experience relates to reflection in which it needs awareness of the experience. Van Manen (1990, p. 36) also emphasizes that the aim of phenomenology is to transform lived experience into a textual expression of its essence – in such a way that the effect of the text is at once a reflexive re-living and a reflective appropriation of something meaningful.

Phenomenology attempts to find out the essence of the meaning. Van Manen (1990, p. 39) says that meaning is discovered in which it can make the structure of lived experience is uncovered to us in such a way that we are now able

to absorb the nature and significance of this experience in a hitherto invisible way. The meaning can be revealed the importance of the experience.

In order to reveal the meaning, the question of the research must be formulated well so that it can dig out the true meaning. Van Manen (1990, p. 43)

says that “the essence of the question, said Gadamer (1975), is the opening up, keeping open, of possibilities... to rely question something is to interrogate

something from the heart of our existence, from the center of our being”. It means

that the question should uncover the experience until the depth awareness of the experience. Moreover, Van Manen (1990, p. 44) states that “a phenomenological

question must not only be made clear, understood, but also “lived” by the researcher”.

Having formulated the question, the researcher should be aware of pre-understanding since it can be a problem. Van Manen (1990, p. 46) says that “the

problem is that our “common sense” pre-understanding, our suppositions, assumptions, and the existing bodies of scientific knowledge, predispose us to interpret the nature of the phenomenon before we have even come to grips with the

significance of the phenomenological question”. In order to overcome that problem, bracketing is needed. Bracketing here refers to bracket our belief.

2) Investigating Experience As We Live It

Investigating experience has a close relation to gathering the data. The data gathering is through interview and observation (Van Manen, 1990, p. 53) Creswell (2012, p. 213) defines that observation is one of the processes of collecting open-ended, firsthand information by observing people and places. Creswell (2012, p. 214) states that observation roles can be as a participant and as a non-participant.

According to Moustakas (2012, pp. 215-216), the process of observing consists of six steps. The first is selecting the site that will be observed. The second is being familiar with the site. The third is identifying who or what to be observed, when and how the observation runs. The fourth is determining the role as a participant or a non-participant. The fifth is doing multiple observations in order to gain or obtain good understanding. The last is doing recording notes.

Interview is the other data gathering of lived experience. Creswell (2012, p. 217) says that a qualitative interview emerges when researchers ask one or more participants general, open-ended questions and record their answers. In this study, I use one-on-one interviews. Creswell (2012, p.218) states that one-on-one interviews are ideal for interviewing participants who are not hesitant to speak, who are articulate, and who can share ideas comfortably. Additionally, the interview is started from the personal experience (Van Manen, 1990, p. 54).

In gathering the data, each experience is appreciated. Van Manen (1990, p. 58) says that phenomenology always proposes any phenomenon as a possible human experience. It can be said that any experiences that appear or emerge during the interview must be highlighted evenly.

3) Hermeneutic Phenomenological Reflection

Van Manen (1990, p. 77) illustrates that the purpose of phenomenological reflection attempts to absorb the essential meaning of something. Meaning has its own definition. Meaning according to Van Manen (1990, p.78) relates to multi-dimensional and multi-layered. In doing reflection, it is done in several themes. Van Manen (1990, p.79) also states that phenomenological themes may be understood as the structures of experience. Hence, when we analyze a phenomenon, we are

trying to determine what the themes are, the experiential structure that make up the experience.

4) Hermeneutic Phenomenological Writing

Hermeneutic phenomenological writing relates to anecdote. Van Manen (1990, p.115) states that anecdotes is closely related to special kind of story. Anecdotes have five functions as stated by Van Manen (1990, p. 121). They are to obtain attention, to gain the importance of reflection, to look for the meaning, to convert people, to gauge the ability to make interpretation.

This step includes transcribing and interpreting the data. Creswell (2012, p. 239) illustrate that transcription is the process of converting audiotape recordings or field notes into text data. This step includes making narrative of the lived experience (Creswell, 2012, p. 509). Then it moves to coding the theme and interpreting the data. Creswell (2012, p. 511) states that narrative researchers should code the data of the stories into themes or categories. Interpretation refers to gaining the larger meaning of the story (Creswell, 2007, p. 157).

5) Maintaining a Strong and Oriented Reflection

In this step, the researcher needs to stay focused on the purpose of the research. Van Manen (1990, p. 33) clearly explains the importance of orientation.

“Unless the researcher remains strong in his or her orientation

to the fundamental question or notion, there will be many temptation to get side-tracked or to wander aimlessly and indulge in wishy-washy speculations, to settle for preconceived opinions and conceptions, to become enchanted with narsissistic reflections or self-indulgent preoccupations, or to fall back onto

In order to prevent that, the texts need to be well-oriented, strong, rich, and deep (Van Manen, 1990, pp. 151-153). The texts need to be oriented to the research purpose. The texts need to be strengthened in order to reach understanding and interpretation. The texts need to be rich in order to discover the phenomenon. The texts need to be deep. Van Manen (1990, p.152) says that depth is what provides the phenomenon or lived experience to which we orient ourselves its meaning and its resistance to our fuller understanding.

6) Balancing the Research Context by Considering Parts and Whole

Van Manen (1990, p.33) states that one has to measure the overall design of the study/text against the importance that the parts must play in the total textual structure. Hence, the researcher will be lost in the process of writing since the writing of parts is going to make up the whole writing. Therefore, a well-organized writing is highly important. The texts are written thematically, analytically, exemplificatively, exegetically, and existentially (Van Manen, 1990, pp. 168-172). The text is written based on the theme as the guidance. The text is analyzed through anecdotes. The text is exemplificatively through rendering the nature of the phenomenon and filling out the initial description by systematically varying the examples (Van Manen, 1990, p. 171). The text is exegetically through seeing other works. The text is existentially through seeing lived time, lived space, lived body, and lived relationship to others.

b. Fields in Lived Experience

Lived Experience has five important elements namley understanding, belief, intention, action, and feeling. Those five elements will be discussed further in this section.

1) Understanding

Lived experience attempts to understand the meaning of phenomenon. I discover the phenomenon and grasp the meaning through understanding it. Lived experience is included in human science. It is as stated by Van Manen (1990, p.40) that human science is to explicate the meaning of human phenomena and to understand the lived structure of meaning. It is also supported by Alvesson and Skoldberg (2000, p.56) that understanding relates to comprehending the past experience emphatically in each individual. Additionally it is also done in the form of depth understanding. Likewise, Van Manen (1990, p. 156) emphasizes that phenomenological research requires a depthful understanding. Heidegger as cited by Palmer (1969, p.131) also states that understanding attempts to gain the experience of the existence of human being.

2) Belief

Lived experience of the students has relation to students’ belief. Students’

belief influences the action and feeling that they have. Tatto and Coupland (2003, p.124) describe that belief is “as a tenet or body tenet of some statement or the reality of some being or phenomenon, especially when based on examination of

evidence”. Therefore, it can be concluded that belief can be obtained through

experiencing the phenomenon. Belief in this research refers to the belief toward project based learning. Each student as the participant absolutely has his or her own belief on project based learning.

3) Intention

Intention is one of the parts of lived experience. Intention can be inferred as a plan or a goal. It is what people intend to do or to achieve. Intention is almost similar with expectation which means a prediction or an estimate or subjective probability that a behavior will actually be performed. Willis (2001) retained

Husserl’s idea of intentionality that human thinking always linked to something as an end point to the act of thinking.

Setiya (2014) proposes three areas of intention. The first is intention for the future, as when I intend to finish my study this semester. The second is intention with which someone acts, as I am typing with the further intention of writing a thesis. The last one is intentional action, as in the fact that I am typing this thesis intentionally.

4) Action

Lived experience is closely related to action. Van Manen (1990, p. 154) describes that human science focuses on action in which hermeneutic phenomenological reflection deepens thought and thus creates fundamental thinking and the acting that comes from it. In conclusion, this theory attempts to say that lived experience included in the hermeneutic phenomenology focuses on how people behave toward the reflection. Moreover, Van Manen, himself, (1990, p.154) emphasizes that phenomenology refers to a philosophy of action in personal and situated sense. In other words, each person has his or her own action in his or her experience. Action is also closely related to feeling and understanding. Van Manen (1990, p. 155) provides an example that “as I act towards children, I feel responsible to act out of a full understanding of what it is like to be in this world as

a child”. From the example, it can be inferred that action of experience results in

feeling and understanding of the experience.

5) Feeling

Lived experience focuses on how people feels the experience that they have. Patton (2002, p.104) emphasizes that lived experience is about how people experience some phenomenon. It also about how they perceive it, how they feel about it, how they judge it, how they remember it, how they make sense of it, and how they talk about it with others. Therefore, feeling is included in the lived experience. Husserl as cited by Patton (2002, p. 105) also emphasizes that phenomenology is in accordance with the study of how people describe things and then experience them through their senses. In other words, people do use their senses to experience and then feel the experience.

The aforementioned fields of lived experience are shaped or caused by intentionality, historicity, ideology or belief, and awareness. Each individual has unique lived experience which is different from one another. The differences are resulted from the aforementioned structures.

The first structure is intentionality. According to Husserl’s phenomenology (1963), one’s experience is intended or represented toward things through particular

concepts, thoughts, ideas, or images. In Husserl’s phenomenology, intentionality is the base of consciousness. It represents one’s consciousness or awareness which shapes and causes one’s understanding, belief, feeling, action, and intention towards things in the world (McIntyre & Smith, 1989). It explains how one sees an object based on previously experienced phenomenon.

The second structure is historicity. Individual consciousness, as the essential structure of phenomenology, is historical (Drummond, 2000, p. 133). First, it can

be characterized as having historicity which means that it is formed by one’s prior

experience. Secondly, individual consciousness has its own place in objective history. It is situated in a certain time and place and circumstance. Therefore, one’s understanding, belief, action, feeling, and intention are influenced by his/ her historicity.

The third structure is ideology. Eagleton (1991) defines ideology as “the

process of production of meaning, signs, and values in social life”. Ideology, as a

set of beliefs, signifies one’s thought on an object or phenomenon. With regard to

the purpose of phenomenology i.e. to assign essential meaning of lived experience, ideology forms how one sees the life world.

The last structure is awareness. In Husserl’s phenomenology, awareness is structure that makes experience conscious (Smith, 2013). To put it in other words, a certain awareness of the experience one has while living through or performing it is what makes experience conscious. Moreover, Smith (2013) points out that awareness is also a defining characteristic of conscious experience which gives the experience a first-person perspective of the object of the study. Therefore, awareness allows an individual to have a first-person perspective on certain experience.

In sum, intentionality, historicity, ideology of belief, and awareness are the structures that form the ELS students’ lived experience. The meaning of their lived experience is manifested in their understanding, belief, feeling, action, and intention.

2. Project-based learning

As PBL has been applied in many kinds of disciplines in the classroom contexts, there are many definitions of this theory which people can take a consideration first before they further study about it (Welsh, 2006). In the fields or in the disciplines other than second and foreign language, the Buck Institute for Education (BIE), an American research and development organization, defines project-based learning as one of the teaching methods which systematically makes the students involved in learning knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry process structured around complex, authentic questions, and carefully designed products as well as tasks (Markham, et al., 2003, p.4). Solomon (2003, p.10) also points out that the project-based learning is one of the learning processes which creates the students to be responsible for their own education. Students work collaboratively to find solutions for the problems which are close to the real life situation or authentic, based on curriculum, and often interdisciplinary. Learners study how to create or produce their own learning process and how to determine what and where information can be obtained. The students are studying and synthesizing the information and then applying and exposing their new knowledge at the end. Moreover, from the entire of the learning process, teachers take a role as managers and advisors as well.

The project-based learning (PBL) was promoted into second language education during seventies (Hedge, 1993). In one of the second language classrooms, PBL becomes an instructional method which systematically improves the language skills of the students, the cognitive domains and global personality skills through valuable projects (Ribe & Vidal, 1993). Moss and Van Duzer (1998,

p.1) defines PBL as an instructional approach which contextualizes learning by exposing the students with questions or problems to solve or products to develop. Fried-Booth (2002, p.6) further develops a definition of PBL as student-centred and driven by the need to produce an end-product. Fried-Booth also further states that PBL is one of the tools to produce an end-product in an authentic surrounding with confidence and independence. Project work is led by the intrinsic needs of the learners who enlarge their own tasks independently or in small groups. This approach is to establish the links between authentic language and language in textbooks.

PBL was constantly exposed by the majority of the experts in second language and foreign language practices (Florez, 1998; Hutchinson, 1993; Maley 2002; McGrath, 2003; Ribe and Vidal, 1993) as one of the influential and

motivating teaching methods to improve students’ second and/or foreign language

through learning by doing. Language learners frequently consider the target language as something outside their world as they do not have any opportunities to use the language learnt in their classroom or to apply it outside the class. PBL, thus allows learners to work together with applied experience in a real world and in a meaningful context (Fried-Booth, 2002) and controls them with a question to resolve or a product to create. Students either work independently or in groups with their own responsibility and the challenge to resolve the authentic problems and to determine their own approaches for finishing their goals (Hutchinson, 1993).

At the end, students show their newly acquired knowledge and a product which exposes their learning. They are then evaluated in the entire of the process by their mates as well as their teachers. The role of the teachers in this process is as

a facilitator and also an advisor. Additionally, PBL develops useful research and study skills, such as the use of reference resources and modern technology for instance, computers, the internet and its useful search engines, all of which are beneficial to lifelong learning (Markham, et al., 2003; McGrath, 2003).

From the above definitions and explanations of PBL in second language and foreign language studies, the definition of PBL in this study is sum up as a comprehensive learning which focuses on authentic problems and challenges that involve the students who work individually or in a team within meaningful activities resulting in an end outcome. It is then confirmed that the PBL is a possible and a useful means or tool for allowing the students to improve their language, content, as well as their communicative skills. They can apply and can combine language and actual knowledge in their real lives while managing and creating the project. In contrast, PBL is the opposite of traditional classroom in which their teachers only internalize the knowledge through textbooks to their students. To have better comprehension on how PBL is discerned from other similar learning methods, such as problem-based learning, the similarities and differences between these two methods are presented in the following section.

a. The comparison of project and problem-based learning

Both problem-based learning and project-based learning shares similar abbreviation known as PBL (Lee & Tsai, 2004), even though in this research the abbreviation of PBL is contextually used for project-based learning. Similarly, these two instructional methods focus on authentic and applied investigations to improve the learning process. The teachers give the students open-ended projects or problems with more than one correct model or answer, intended to allow students

to generate their ability in making decision and to generate their ability in skills in solving problem while actively creating the answer for the problem (Moursund, 2002). Moreover, the students also acquire a conceptual comprehension of specific content knowledge. Additionally, the students work collaboratively and discuss their ideas throughout the process of learning. (Jones, 1996; Park & Peggy, 2007; Markham, et al., 2003). Since these two methods are constructed on constructivism, students build their own learning from their experience and reflect on what they have learned through their learning practices. Deep learning is generated in the learning process (Sas, 2006). Furthermore, the two methods of learning stress on the students at the center with the teachers as facilitator or advisor (Markham, et al., 2003). The teacher encourages the students to relate their prior knowledge to the new knowledge related to the problem. Besides, the students also learn how to communicate their new knowledge to their friends, question their peers and share their learning.

Although both methods share many similar things, they have distinctive points or learning. In problem-based learning, a teacher starts with the presentation of a problem relevant to the field in which students will become proficient. Students begins with identifying the problems and factors that they need more information about, and pose questions for information they do not know. The teacher guides the students to the questions that are pertinent and essential to this stage of their study (Engel, 1997). Some questions are followed up by the whole group and some are allocated to individuals to find the answers. In addition, the teacher discusses the resources that are needed for the research with the students. The students construct plans to find their own answers, create solutions, and later share the information or

solutions with their peers (Boud & Feletti, as cited in Duch, Groh, Allen, 2001). The goal of problem-based learning is problem-solving skills which contain various approaches to counter problems, while an end product is not a key concern (Jones, 1996).

Unlike problem-based learning, the process of project-based learning typically begins with driven questions or problems that help students to select their topic of interest or a topic which they believe is important and relevant to their studies. Students work collaboratively and design plans for their research before commencing the project. At the end, students have to develop a meaningful product, presentation, or performance (Markham, et al., 2003; Moss and Van Duzer, 1998; Stanley, 2000). Even though the principal goal is the final product which can be shared with others and evaluated (Brophy, 2004; Sas, 2006), the most important feature that shows the success of learning is the production process in which students acquire their new content knowledge and communicative, social and management skills (Curtis, 2002; Guo, 2006; Helle, Tynjala, & Olkinuora, 2006; Markham et al., 2003; Solomon 2003). It is clear that in project based learning, students control their own learning and collaboratively work together to achieve their goals. They have the opportunity to construct their knowledge and demonstrate their creative thinking and skills through their projects. The characteristics of PBL activities are different from other teaching approaches; therefore the following section identifies the principal features of PBL.

b. Principal Features of PBL

The characteristics of PBL are consistent among educators who studied and implemented this teaching method (Curtis, 2002; Hedge, 1993; Helle, Tynjala, &

Olkinuora, 2006; Solomon 2003; Stoller, 1997). Features of PBL include: (a) complex explorations over a period of time; (b) a student-centred learning activity whereby students plan, complete and present the task; (c) challenging questions, problems or topics of student interest which become the center of the project and the learning process; (d) the de-emphasis of teacher-directed activities; (e) frequent feedback from peers and facilitators, and an opportunity to share resources, ideas and expertise through the whole process in the classroom; (f) hands-on activities and the use of authentic resources and technologies; (g) a collaborative learning environment rather than a competitive one; (h) the use of a variety of skills such as social skills and management skills; (i) the use of effort in connecting ideas and acquiring new skills during different stages of projects; (j) the production of meaningful artefacts that can be shared with peers, teachers, and experts in a public presentation; and (k) assessment in both the process of working from the first stage to the last stage and the finished project. It is clear that PBL has several distinct characteristics which build upon the essence of authentic learning. Therefore, it is important to study how authentic learning facilitates a project based learning environment.

c. Authentic Learning

Authentic learning allows students to experience relevant and real-world tasks. It makes their learning more meaningful by connecting prior knowledge to their current study. Herrington and Herrington (2006) stated that students in

authentic learning environment are “engaged in motivating and challenging activities that require collaboration and support” (p. 2). Students have real-life roles which are similar to the real world outside the class room and these necessitate

teamwork, negotiation, and the use of problem-solving skills (Woo, Herrington, Agostinho, Reeves, 2007). The teacher acts as a facilitator to guide students to

achieve their learning’s goals by giving support and guidance throughout the learning process.

Authentic activities are one of the main features of PBL as students have an opportunity to connect to real world situations while completing their projects. (Markham et al., 2003) A PBL project allows students to engage in authentic situations and practices, for example, communication with people outside the classroom and using problem-solving, teamwork and critical thinking skills. They have the opportunity to use other than their textbooks, they need to search and investigate their project through the use of other resources (e.g. Internet, local community, advertising materials, and verbal communication in the real world.)

Downes (2007) stresses that authentic learning typically focuses on real-world, complex problems and their solutions, using role-playing exercises, problem-based activities, case studies, and participation in virtual communities of

practice. The learning environments are inherently multidisciplinary. They are “not

constructed in order to teach geometry or to teach philosophy. A learning

environment is similar to some ‘real world’ application or discipline: managing a

city, building a house, flying an airplane, setting a budget, and solving a crime. Reeves, Herrington, & Oliver (2002) assert that learning researchers have distilled the essence of the authentic learning experience down to 10 design elements, providing educators with a useful checklist that can be adapted to any subject matter domain. First, there should be real-world relevance which means authentic activities match the real-world tasks of professionals in practice as nearly

as possible. Learning rises to the level of authenticity when it asks students to work actively with abstract concepts, facts, and formulae inside a realistic—and highly social—context mimicking “the ordinary practices of the [disciplinary] culture. Second, ill-defined problem means that challenges cannot be solved easily by the application of an existing algorithm; instead, authentic activities are relatively undefined and open to multiple interpretations, requiring students to identify for themselves the tasks and subtasks needed to complete the major task. Third, there must be sustained investigation which means problems cannot be solved in a matter of minutes or even hours. Instead, authentic activities comprise complex tasks to be investigated by students over a sustained period of time, requiring significant investment of time and intellectual resources. Fourth, the multiple sources and perspectives meaning that learners are not given a list of resources. Authentic activities provide the opportunity for students to examine the task from a variety of theoretical and practical perspectives, using a variety of resources, and requires students to distinguish relevant from irrelevant information in the process. Fifth, there also should be collaboration which means success is not achievable by an individual learner working alone. Authentic activities make collaboration integral to the task. Sixth, reflection (metacognition) meaning that authentic activities enable learners to make choices and reflect on their learning, both individually and as a team or community. Seventh, the interdisciplinary perspective should also appear since relevance is not confined to a single domain or subject matter specialization. Instead, authentic activities have consequences that extend beyond a particular discipline, encouraging students to adopt diverse roles and think in interdisciplinary terms. Eighth there must be integrated assessment which means

assessment is not merely summative in authentic activities but is woven seamlessly into the major task in a manner that reflects real-world evaluation processes. Ninth, there are polished products meaning that conclusions are not merely exercises or substeps in preparation for something else. Authentic activities culminate in the creation of a whole product, valuable in its own right. The last, there should be multiple interpretations and outcomes in which rather than yielding a single correct answer obtained by the application of rules and procedures, authentic activities allow for diverse interpretations and competing solutions.

It is clear that authentic tasks embedded in PBL have the potential to match the real-world contexts. Challenging topics should encourage students to communicate meaningfully and purposefully. Students should have a chance to use what they learnt from previous and present classes to communicate and provide ideas in real ways. Students should have opportunities to read and listen to valuable sources of input and converse and interact with people outside the classroom. After going through a complex process of in-depth learning, students then should have the opportunity to create authentic product that is directed towards their ultimate goal.

d. Learner Autonomy

There are various definitions of learner autonomy. Little and Dam (1998)

define learner autonomy as “...responsibility for our own learning ... The students

should take at least some of the initiatives that provide shape and direction to the process of learning, and should communicate the progress and should evaluate the targets to be achieved. Macaro (1997, p. 168) adds that autonomy is an ability learned through knowing how to make decisions. It is an ability to take charge of

one’s own language learning and an ability to know the value of taking responsibility for one’s own objectives, content, progress, methods, and techniques

of learning.

In PBL, learner autonomy is showed through project work. PBL students are enabled to choose the topic of the project and are enabled to be engaged in planning and creating their project and the process of learning with support from teachers (Markham et al., 2003). In other words, the authority is provided so that learners can control their learning from the beginning of the study to the end of the course program. Additionally, Stoller (2006, p.33) adds that PBL classroom setting can create more learner and learning-centred setting. With learner autonomy in PBL, students owns their responsibility for their learning. Moreover, they are expected to be motivated and to feel more competent and self-determined. Students are also likely to obtain interest and succeed in their learning (Kohonen, 1992).

e. Cooperative learning

Gillies (2007, p. 246) defines cooperative learning as working together with

group members to finish the shared purposes. To level up the awareness of one’s

own learning, students should reflect and communicate their experience in learning with their partners or friends. Cooperative learning can also be a way to increase

learner’s awareness of learning (Kohonen, 1992).

Cooperative learning is a student-centered, instructor-facilitated instructional strategy in which a small group of students is responsible for its own learning and the learning of all group members. Students interact with each other in the same group to acquire and practice the elements of a subject matter in order to solve a problem, complete a task or achieve a goal.

Panitz offers a similar definition; he goes on to add that the teacher maintains control of the learning environment, designs learning activities, structures work teams, and, in his view, does not empower students. Kagan (1994) contributes that in cooperative learning the teacher designs the social interaction structures as well as learning activities. Johnson, Johnson and Holubec (1993) state that in cooperative

learning students can maximize their own and each other’s learning when they work

together. Slavin (1996) argues that a critical element of cooperative learning is group team work and team goals.

In contrast to cooperative situations, competitive situations are ones in which students work against each other to achieve a goal that only one or a few can attain. In competition there is a negative interdependence among goal achievements; students perceive that they can obtain their goals if and only if the other students in the class fail to obtain their goals (Deutsch, 1962; Johnson & Johnson, 1989). Norm-referenced evaluation of achievement occurs. The result is that students either work hard to do better than their classmates, or they take it easy because they do not believe they have a chance to win. In individualistic learning situations students work alone to accomplish goals unrelated to those of classmates and are evaluated on a criterion-referenced basis. Students' goal achievements are independent; students perceive that the achievement of their learning goals is unrelated to what other students do (Deutsch, 1962, Johnson & Johnson, 1989). The result is to focus on self-interest and personal success and ignore as irrelevant the successes and failures of others.

Apart from that, adults often manage conflicts destructively. We tend to behave as we have been taught. A highly individualistic and competitive environment may lead to an inability to get along or manage conflicts

constructively. As cooperation has positive effects on so many important outcomes, while the other 2 efforts have quite a few defects, makes cooperative learning one of the most valuable tools educators have.

Gilies (2007) and Johnson & Johnson (1994) mention five important points for successful cooperative learning. First, there should be positive interdependence which means that students should create the goal, but the goal can only be accomplished if all of them commit to finish the task given together. Second, there should be face-to-face promotive interaction which means that students have to provide effective assistance to each other by discussing, exchanging sources, reasoning, and giving feedback. Third, individual accountability should also be there which means that even though the project is a group project, but the each of the students must also be given individual tasks evenly so that each of the members can give even contributions. Interpersonal and small-group skills should also be taken into account. Students should have social skills to promote group achievement. This skill involves constructing trust, having effective communication, and making decision, and organizing conflict. The last, there should be group processing which means that the students have to keep their positive working relationships and have to possess a sense of success as well as respect when collaboratively working with their peers to achieve group goal.

f. Multiple Intelligences

PBL produces a learning environment which enables the students to explore their own interests, increase their skills and abilities and enlarge opportunities to improve their learning potentials. It is also proved that each students has different intelligence strengths. Hence, teachers can apply the multiple intelligences theory

in the classroom by presenting a variety of learning activities, options of assignment or assessment.

In fact the theory of multiple intelligences promotes PBL (Hargrave, 2003; Moursound, et al., 1997; Welsh, 2006; Wolk, 1994). Differently, in the traditional formal and structured classroom, students cannot propose their intelligences in their learning process, but in PBL, students are free and they have many options of learning which enable them to maximize their skills and abilities to improve their potential in their learning process. This theory also sees learners to have different strengths, therefore different approaches of teaching and chances for students to give response to their own learning styles are needed. As an outcome, students are likely to be successful in their learning (Pritchard, 2005).

Teachers, therefore, should think of all intelligences as equally important. This is in great contrast to traditional education systems which typically place a strong emphasis on the development and use of verbal and mathematical intelligences. Thus, the Theory of Multiple Intelligences implies that educators should recognize and teach to a broader range of talents and skills. Another implication is that teachers should structure the presentation of material in a style which engages most or all of the intelligences. For example, when teaching about the revolutionary war, a teacher can show students battle maps, play revolutionary war songs, organize a role play of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, and have the students read a novel about life during that period. This kind of presentation not only excites students about learning, but it also allows a teacher to reinforce the same material in a variety of ways. By activating a wide assortment

of intelligences, teaching in this manner can facilitate a deeper understanding of the subject material.

As the education system has stressed the importance of developing mathematical and linguistic intelligences, it often bases student success only on the measured skills in those two intelligences. Supporters of Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences believe that this emphasis is unfair. Children whose musical intelligences are highly developed, for example, may be overlooked for gifted programs or may be placed in a special education class because they do not have the required math or language scores. Teachers must seek to assess their students' learning in ways which will give an accurate overview of the their strengths and weaknesses. As children do not learn in the same way, they cannot be assessed in a uniform fashion. Therefore, it is important that a teacher create an "intelligence profiles" for each student. Knowing how each student learns will allow the teacher to properly assess the child's progress (Lazear, 1992). This individualized evaluation practice will allow a teacher to make more informed decisions on what to teach and how to present information.

g. Steps of project development

In general, there are four steps of project development in PBL namely starting the project, developing the project, reporting to the class, and assessing the project (Foster and Masters, 1996; Markham, et al., 2003; Moss and Van Duzer, 1998; Ribe and Vidal, 1993; Sheppard & Stoller, 1997; Stanley, 2000; Stoller, 1995). Those four steps will be further discussed in this section.

A12 Prosesnya adalah kita cari bahan, entah itu video gambar atau materi gitu kan. Terus eee bikin kerangka

power point duluan, trus atur buat ketemu itu yang ketemuan yah. Trus kita atur buat ketemu, kemudian

baru kita sharing topik topiknya yang mau kita presentasikan, abis itu dia setuju atau aku setuju ngga cocok ngga baru disitu kalo udah cocok ya udah kita kembangkan, kita rapiin aja gitu.

UOR

TW NEGO

R13 Dari point ketemuan yang pertama, apakah mba menemukan kendala saat mau ketemuan?

A13 (laughing) kayanya sih waktu itu ngga terlalu karena Cuma berdua. Mungkin kalo kepalanya lebih banyak agak lebih ribet juga kali ya. Tapiya ga tau juga mungkin karena kita sama sama sekelas dan kita sama sama ngga kerja semester 2 jadi kita waktunya lebih banyak gitu. R14 Setelah mba menemukan topik, outlining, terus dalam

proses itu apakah dalam proses itu sempat berkonsultasi dengan dosen?

A14 Engga. R15 Kenapa?

A15 Oh iya waktu itu kita ngga konsultasi, aku juga bingung. (laughing). Kenapa ya (laughing). Hmm.. iya ya kenapa kalo paper doang konsultasi, tapi kalo presentasi ngga pernah malah konsultasi,. Iya jarang.

R16 Jarang ya, pasti kan dalam presentasi itu mba dan teman menemukan kendala entah materi atau prosesnya. Nah itu gimana dan teman overcome kalo ga konsultasi?

A16 Jadi karena kita sudah terbiasa diberikan kebebasan mungkin kali ya, atau mungkin kalo ngga kepepet banget teroinya apa. Pernah sih waktu itu sekali nanya. Kalo kepepet toerinya sama ngga tau apa gitu, pernah sih konsultasi. Tapi jarang kalo yang kelompok. Cuma dulu pas semester satu aja. Itu pun individu tapi. Kalo yang semester dua ngga pernah. No.. no.. Ooh iya mungkin karena juga kadang ngerasa kita sebisanya gitu kan.

Dikelas baru kita didiskusikan, dikasih enlightmentnya di kelas. Jadi sering ngerasa gitu lo. Pencerahannya itu kadang kadang dikelas. Jadi kaya didiskusikan di kelas gitu.

L-CS R17 Setelah itu kan mba presentasi?

A17 Iya presentasi dulu. Jadi memang awalnya Cuma opening biasa. Trus kita langsung presentasi aja. Langsung presentasi, trus langsung diskusi tanya jawab.

R18 Durasinya?

A18 Semester dua itu memang puncaknya presentasi sih dan tugas (laughing).

R19 Terus terus. Kenapa mba?

A19 Puncaknya iya jadi, Dulu kan semester satu kan aah setengah jam presentasi tuh ah udah lama. Nah sekarang anak anak sampe satu jam. Bahkan satu setengah jam kalo materinya dibebaskan.

R20 Itu sendiri? A20 Engga.

R21 Kalo yang berdua?

A21 Oh pernah tuh! Pernah sampe dua jam. Karena ada video juga sih. Pake media. Karena kan kalo capek ngomong kan kita skip pake media. Gitu. Trus kita baca dulu baru ngomong lagi.

R22 Saat mba presentasi berdua, apa yang terjadi? Gimana prosesnya siapa yang memulai duluan siapa yang melanjutkan gitu?

A22 Yang literary itu ee kita bagi dua bener bener kaya dua orang berbeda. Eeh kaya single presentation gitu tapi jadi satu. Jadi siapa yang dulu gitu. Kemarin kita janjian ehsiapa dulu ah sama aja. Nah pas di hari H kita malu. Ngga tau sih kalo kelompok lain. Tapi rata rata memang kaya single presentation dijadiin satu gitu. Sama aja sih siapa ja yang mulai duluan. Tapi kalo yang di british itu beda, karena kita bener bener kaya konsep banget materinya. Jadi waktu itu aku yang mulai duluan. Jadi kaya aku nyampein bakgroundnya dulu trus contohnya, trus dia lanjutin dengan contoh yang lebih dalam lagi. Jadi harus ada urutannya lah.

R23 Di presentasi itu ada sesi apa aja mba?

A23 Sesinya sih ngomong ngomong gitu, trus open discussionnya. Kadang yang nanya temen temen dan dosennya juga.

R24 Bisa diceritain ngga saat open discussionnya gimana? A24 eeee jadi yaa kita invite gitu kan. Yaa ada yang memang

suka bertanya gitu. Tipikal ya. (laughing) iya jadi yaa tapi senengnya juga sih ngerasa jadi kaya ngerasa ngga dicuekin gitu. Asal pertanyaannya ngga susah. (laughing) iya gitu lah.

R25 Nah, Saat presentasi itu sendiri, apakah mba dan temen mendapati atau menemukan kesulitan atau kendala? A25 Kesulitannya adalah.. eeemm kayanya sih kesulitan sih

ngga terlalu ada sih. Karena aku orangnya kalo udah prepare aku pas presentasi aku lebih rely on my preparation gitu sih. Jadi kadang kadang paling kesulitan tidak diduga adalah pertanyaan yang susah aja sih. Cuma kalo dari masing masing udah punya cara mempresentasikan menurutku cara berbicara sendiri jadi mungkin kesulitan pas presentasinya adalah kesulitan karena tidak disiapkan.

R26 Kalo menemukan pertanyaan yang sulit saat presentasi, apakah mba dan partner kolaborasi menjawab atau gimana?

A26 Nah, kadang kadang ada yang baik, jadi kita komunikasi dulu. Tapi kadang kadang kalo misalnya yang pertanyaannya ditujukan ke aku atau kedia kita sama sama ngga tau, kita kadang kadang saling diem dan ngga tau jawab.

R27 Dibantu dosen ngga terus mba kalo mba dan teman stuck? A27 Mostly dibantu sih jadi diskusi bersama gitu. Hehe jadi

menyenangkan.

R28 Selanjutnya, akhirnya setelah presentasi itu gimana? A28 Legaa banget. Gimana si perasaannya lega banget.

Soalnya persiapannya kaya seribu satu malam. (laughing).

A29 Iya, tapi ga tau dapet nilai berapa. Kalo ga salah A minus. (laughing)

R30 Oke, lanjut ya. Apa intensi mba dan teman saat membuat presentasi itu?

A30 Oooh, ini.. Oke hmm part of the assignment sillabus ya so that we can get the mark. (Laughing).

R31 Jadi itu intensi utamanya?

A31 (laughing). Ga juga sih. Sebenernya ada beberapa sih. Habis gimana dong Cuma motivasi utamanya adalah untuk mendapatkan nilai. (laughing). Kita kan ngerjain tugas buat dapetin nilai kan ya (laughing). Sebenernya ada lagi. Aku ngerasa.. eee aku merasa mendapatkan kesenengan pribadi. Karena gimana ya, hmm kaya ditantang si jadi ya. Mencoba untuk... karena kan kita presentasi tuh kita kaya yang bener bener inc harge dan itu bebannya bener bener beban dan tanggung jawab juga di kita banget. Jadi kita harus bener bener kaya ditantang untuk bertanggung jawab, untuk memberikan sesuatu yang apa ya lebih dari yang sesuatu yang lebih baik untuk semuanya gitu. Kadang ditantang melebihi kemampuan kita kadang-kadang. Jadi ya itu intensinya untuk completion course dan pengetahuan, juga bertanggung jawab. Hehehe

R32 Saat mba mengerjakan project itu, apa yang mba aware saat itu?

A32 Awarenya sih pas mungkin kapabilitasnya kita saling

aware apa yaa.. mungkin kita sama sama kuat dimana. Kalo kelemahan ga tau juga sih. Ya gitu sih saling memaksimalkan apa yang kita miliki mungkin gitu kali ya.

DINT

R33 Itu dari segi apa mba?

A33 Pengetahuan. Tapi, kalo dari sisi presentasi bagian kita

juga beda. Kan ada yang cara ngomongnya menarik gitu kan. Ada yang pelan atau gimana gitu. Itu dari cara presentasi gitu. Jadi mungkin dia cocok ditempatkan di depan atau belakang. Itu sih yang aku aware saat itu. Atau pembagian minat tentang topik nya gitu sih yang aku alami.

ENOP

A34 Jarang sih ya aku. Aku unaware tuh ya kadang kadang tuh ya ada aja yang munngkin kaya pertanyaan yang kita sudah baca sebelumnya kita bisa jawab. Kadang kita unaware juga gitu. Tapi itu kan juga tujuan discussion gitu kan. Biar bisa mendiskusikan. Karena kan presenter itu ngga mungkin tau semuanya kan. Kalo yang di british itu pesertanya juga udah siapin ee menyiapkan response paper berhubungan dengan topik juga. Jadi kadang yang presenter itu mendapatkan wawasan juga dari temen temen audience karena mereka udah baca jurnal masing masing karena udah spesifik. Kalo yang presenter kan lebih general. Kadang kita abis presentasi sharing jurnal mereka. Itu pasti. Jadi kita dapat pengetahuan baru. Kadang kadang kita ga tau infonya kita malah dapet infonya dari mereka. Gitu.

R35 Dengan kata lain Presentasi mba itu juga dievaluasi secara ngga langsung?

A35 Benar sekali. Secara ga lansung dosennya juga mengevaluasi lewat discussionnya dan teman teman juga ikut evaluasi kalo ada yang ngga tepat. Gitu sih.

R36 Apa yang bisa pelajari dari mengerjakan project bersama peer atau temen mba itu?

A36 Aku harus lebih gimana ya menyampingkan Ego juga untuk karena kan kita bersama gitu. Kadang juga kita harus membantu juga. Dan ringan tangan kalo misalnya dia tidak tau topik ini, apa gimana kita juga harus saling sharing membantu dia gitu ngasih info yang berguna buat dia, jadi ngga egois untuk diri sendiri jadi sama sama lah. Gitu.

R37 Bagaimana project grup presentation itu mempengaruhi hidup mba?

A37 Secara, iya secara ngga lansgung lebih apa ya berhubungan dengan tadi. Tidak egois maksudnya jadi

kita ee bahkan lebih mengenal teman kita juga lewat bekerja sama kadang kita lebih mengenal karakter orang. Kalo kadang kadang yang suka spannengan. Kau

juga kalo spanneng gimana. Kadang ada yang juga cuek juga sampe yang gimana gitu kerjainnya. Jadi harus lebih ngerti aja gitu.

R38 Pernah nemuin kaya gitu mba saat ngerjain presentasinya?

A38 Ada. Pernah banget. Aku sih jadi perfeksionis aku bakal kesel gitu ya. Kok gimana ngga sama sama ga sesuai dengan ekspektasi masing masing. Kalo perfeksionis kan gitu. Tapi aku engga sih aku belajar yaa kita udah sama sama.. yaaa kadang kadang kalo sampe apa ya mengecewakan si jarang si maksusnya temen temen sama sama kerja keras. Yaaa ngga jarang kecewa sih karena temen temen.

R39 Dalam proses pengerjaan dari awal sampe akhir presentasi, ada ngga hal yang membuat berkesan atau paling kamu ingat?

A39 Ada ooh itu sih ditanya tiba tiba ditengah presentasi. Nah itu rasanya deg degan banget. Itu pas kelas british. Di sela di tengah tengah presentasi. Nah waktu itu ada tiga pertanyaan tiba tiba gitu. Tapi ada yang bisa dijawab ada yang engga sih. Cuma tapi ya nggapapa walaupun ngga bisa jawab ngga masalah, it’s fine. Tetep dihargai pendapat kita waktu itu. Jadi itu kaget. Kita pikir ngga akan ditanya di tengah tengah. Ehh tau tau ditanyain. (laughing).

R40 Trus kalian gimana saat itu?

A40 Lirik lirikan sih. Trus temen aku juga nyumbang pendapat jadi akhirnya kejawab. Gitu sih yang bikin aku kaget. Soalnya tuh aku orangnya kan prepare banget. Ada yang spontaneous. Gapapa sih seru juga kalo kaya gitu. R41 Wahh.. baik kalo gitu mba. Terima kasih banyak yaa mba

udah mau membantu interview aku. A41 Iya sama sama. Jadi learning juga. Hehe