Lecture 3 - Thermal.ppt 768KB Jun 23 2011 10:31:54 AM
Payload Thermal Issues &
Calculations
Ballooning Unit, Lecture 3
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
1
Thermal Requirements
• All payload components can function properly only within
particular temperature ranges
• Operating temperature range (narrowest)
– In this temperature range the component will perform to within
specified parameters
• Non-Operation temperature range (wider)
– Component will not perform within specs, but will do so when
returned to operating temperature range
• Survival temperature range (widest)
– If this range is exceeded component will never return to proper
operation
• Thermal requirements constitute specifying these ranges
for all components
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
2
Thermal Control Plan
• Systems and procedures for satisfying the thermal
requirements
• Show that thermal system (i.e. heaters, insulation,
surface treatment) is sufficient to avoid excursions
beyond survival temperature range
• Show critical components remain mostly in the
operating temperature range
• Specify mitigation procedures if temperature
moves to non-operating range (e.g. turn on
heaters)
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
3
Determining Temperature Ranges
• Start with OEM (original equipment manufacturer)
datasheet on product
– Datasheets usually specify only operating temperature range
– Definition of “operating” may vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer for similar components
• Look for information on how operating parameters change
as a function of temperature
– Your operating requirement may be more stringent than the
manufacturer
• Find similar products and verify that temperature ranges are
similar
• Search for papers reporting results from performance
testing of product
• Call manufacturer and request specific information
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
4
Survival Temperature Range
• Survival temperature range will be the most
difficult to quantify
• Range limits may be due to different effects
– Softening or loss of temper
– Differential coefficients of expansion can lead to
excessive shear
• Contact manufacturer and ask for their
measurements or opinion
• Estimate from ranges reports for similar products
• Measure using thermal chamber
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
5
Heat Transfer
• The payload will gain or lose heat energy through three
fundamental heat transfer mechanisms
• Convection is the process by which heat is transferred by
the mass movement of molecules (i.e. generally a fluid of
some sort) from one place to another.
• Conduction is the process by which heat is transferred by
the collision of “hot” fast moving molecules with “cold”
slow moving molecules, speeding (heating) these slow
molecules up.
• Radiation is the process by which heat is transferred by the
emission and absorption of electromagnetic waves.
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
6
Convection
• Requires a temperature difference and a working fluid to
transfer energy
Qconv = h A ( T1 – T2 )
• The temperature of the surface is T1 and the temperature of
the fluid is T2 in Ko
• The surface area exposed to convection is given by A in m2
• The coefficient h depends on the properties of the fluid.
– 5 to 6 W/(m2 Ko ) for normal pressure & calm winds
– 0.4 W/(m2 Ko ) or so for low pressure
• In the space environment, where air pressure is at a
minimum, convection heat transfer is not very important.
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
7
Conduction
• Requires a temperature gradient (dT/dx) and some kind of
material to convey the energy
Qcond = k A ( dT / dx )
• The surface area exposed to conduction is given by A in m 2
• The coefficient k is the thermal conductivity of the material.
– 0.01 W/(m2 Ko ) for styrofoam
– 0.04 W/(m2 Ko ) for rock wool, cork, fiberglass
– 205 W/(m2 Ko ) for aluminium
• Need to integrate the gradient over the geometry of the
conductor.
– Q = k A ((T1-T2)/L) for a rod of area A and length L
– Q = 4 k r (r + x) ((T1-T2)/x) for a spherical shell of radius r and
thickness x
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
8
Radiation
• Requires a temperature difference between two bodies, but no
matter is needed to transfer the heat
Qrad = A ( T14 – T24 )
• The Stefan-Boltzmann constant, , value is 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4
• The surface area involved in radiative heat transfer is given by A
in m2
• The coefficient is the emissivity of the material.
–
–
–
–
Varies from 0 to 1
Equal to the aborptivity ( )at the same wavelength
A good emitter is also a good absorper
A good reflector is a bad emitter
• In the space environment, radiation will be the dominant heat
transfer mechanism between the payload & environment
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
9
Emissivity & Absorptivity 1
• Kirchoff’s Law of Thermal Radiation: At thermal
equilibrium, the emissivity of a body (or surface)
equals its absorptivity
• A material with high reflectivity (e.g. silver) would
have a low absorptivity AND a low emissivity
– Vacuum bottles are “silver” coated to stop radiative
emission
– Survival “space” blankets use the same principle
• Kirchoff’s Law requires an integral over all
wavelengths
• Thus, some materials are described as having different
absorptivity and emissivity value.
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
10
Emissivity & Absorptivity 2
•
Manufacturers define absorption and emission parameters over specific
(different) wavelength ranges
– Solar Absorptance ( s ): absorptivity for 0.3 to 2.5 micron wavelengths
– Normal Emittance ( n ): emissivity for 5 to 50 micron wavelengths
•
The Sun, Earth and deep space are all at different temperatures and,
therefore, emit power over different wavelengths
– A blackbody at the Sun’s temperature (~6,000 Ko) would emit between about 0.3
and 3 microns and at the Earth’s temperature (~290 Ko) would emit between
about 3 and 50 microns
• For space we want to absorb little of
the Sun’s power and transfer much
of the payload heat to deep space.
• Want a material with low s and
high n .
– Sherwin Williams white paint has
s of 0.35 and n of 0.85
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
11
Steady State Solution
• In a steady state all heat flows are constant and nothing
changes in the system
• Sum of all heat generators is equal to the sum of all heat
losses ( Qin = Qout )
Qrad
Ts
Qin
• Example flow of heat
Qcond
through a payload box wall
T
T
2
1
– Assume vacuum so no convection
– Input heat ( Qin ) generated by electronics flows through wall by
conduction and is then radiated to space.
Qcond = Qin or kA ( T1 – T2 ) / L = Qin
(1)
Qrad = Qin or A (T24 – Ts4 ) = Qin
(2)
– Use eq. 2 to determine T2 and then use eq. 1 to determine T1
• But real systems are never this simple
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
12
Balloon Environment is Complex
Qsun+Qalbedo+QIR+Qpower = Qr,space+Qr,Earth+Qc
• Multiple heat sources
– Direct solar input (Qsun), Sun
reflection (Qalbedo), IR from Earth
(QIR), Experiment power (Qpower)
• Multiple heat sinks
– Radiation to space (Qr,space),
Radiation to Earth (Qr,Earth),
Convection to atmosphere (Qc)
• Equation must be solved by
iteration to get the external
temperature
• Then conduct heat through
insulation to get internal
temperature
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
13
Solar Input Is Very Important
• Nominal Solar Constant value is 1370 W / m2
• Varies ~2% over year due to Earth orbit eccentricity
• Much larger variation due to solar inclination angle
– Depends upon latitude, time of year & time of day
• Albedo is reflection of sun from Earth surface or clouds
– Fraction of solar input depending on surface conditions under payload
ATIC-02 data showing effects of daily variation of sun input
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
14
Other Important Parameters
• IR radiation from the Earth is absorbed by the payload
– Flux in range 160 to 260 W/m2, over wavelength range ~5 to 50
microns, depending on surface conditions
– Radiation is absorbed in proportion of Normal Emittance ( n )
• Heat is lost via radiation to Earth and deep space
– Earth temperature is 290 Ko and deep space is 4 Ko
• There is also convective heat loss to the residual atmosphere
– Atmosphere temperature ~260 Ko
• For a 8 cm radius, white painted sphere at 100,000 feet above
Palestine, TX on 5/21 at 7 am local time with 1 W interior
power:
Qsun = 9.5 W,
Qr,Earth = 0.1 W,
LSU 06/21/2
Qalbedo = 3.7 W,
Qr,Space = 15.3 W,
QIR = 1.6 W
Qconv = 0.4 W
Thermal Issues
15
Application for BalloonSat
• Can probably neglect heat loss due to convection and
radiation to Earth
– Simplifies the equation you need to solve
• Need to determine if the solar inclination angle will be
important for your payload geometry
– e.g. a sphere will absorb about the same solar radiation regardless
of time of day and latitude
• Spend some time convincing yourself that you know
values for your payload surface s and n and your
insulation k.
• Biggest problem will be to estimate albedo and Earth IR
input
– Use extremes for albedo and IR to bracket your temperature range
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
16
References
•
“HyperPhysics” web based physics concepts, calculators and examples by Carl
R. Nave, Department of Physics & Astronomy, Georgia State University
–
–
–
–
–
•
Home page at http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html#hph
Thermodynamics at http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/heacon.html#heacon
Heat Transfer at http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/heatra.html#c1
Vacuum Flask at http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/vacfla.html#c1
Thermal Conductivity Table at http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/tables/thrcn.html#c1
Table of Solar Absorptance and Normal Emmittance for various materials by Dr.
Andrew Marsh and Caroline Raines of Square One research and the Welsh
School of Architecture at Cardiff University.
– http://www.squ1.com/index.php?http://www.squ1.com/materials/abs-emmit.html
•
Sun, Moon Altitude, Azimuth table generator from the U.S. Naval Observatory
–
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/AltAz.html
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
17
Calculations
Ballooning Unit, Lecture 3
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
1
Thermal Requirements
• All payload components can function properly only within
particular temperature ranges
• Operating temperature range (narrowest)
– In this temperature range the component will perform to within
specified parameters
• Non-Operation temperature range (wider)
– Component will not perform within specs, but will do so when
returned to operating temperature range
• Survival temperature range (widest)
– If this range is exceeded component will never return to proper
operation
• Thermal requirements constitute specifying these ranges
for all components
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
2
Thermal Control Plan
• Systems and procedures for satisfying the thermal
requirements
• Show that thermal system (i.e. heaters, insulation,
surface treatment) is sufficient to avoid excursions
beyond survival temperature range
• Show critical components remain mostly in the
operating temperature range
• Specify mitigation procedures if temperature
moves to non-operating range (e.g. turn on
heaters)
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
3
Determining Temperature Ranges
• Start with OEM (original equipment manufacturer)
datasheet on product
– Datasheets usually specify only operating temperature range
– Definition of “operating” may vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer for similar components
• Look for information on how operating parameters change
as a function of temperature
– Your operating requirement may be more stringent than the
manufacturer
• Find similar products and verify that temperature ranges are
similar
• Search for papers reporting results from performance
testing of product
• Call manufacturer and request specific information
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
4
Survival Temperature Range
• Survival temperature range will be the most
difficult to quantify
• Range limits may be due to different effects
– Softening or loss of temper
– Differential coefficients of expansion can lead to
excessive shear
• Contact manufacturer and ask for their
measurements or opinion
• Estimate from ranges reports for similar products
• Measure using thermal chamber
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
5
Heat Transfer
• The payload will gain or lose heat energy through three
fundamental heat transfer mechanisms
• Convection is the process by which heat is transferred by
the mass movement of molecules (i.e. generally a fluid of
some sort) from one place to another.
• Conduction is the process by which heat is transferred by
the collision of “hot” fast moving molecules with “cold”
slow moving molecules, speeding (heating) these slow
molecules up.
• Radiation is the process by which heat is transferred by the
emission and absorption of electromagnetic waves.
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
6
Convection
• Requires a temperature difference and a working fluid to
transfer energy
Qconv = h A ( T1 – T2 )
• The temperature of the surface is T1 and the temperature of
the fluid is T2 in Ko
• The surface area exposed to convection is given by A in m2
• The coefficient h depends on the properties of the fluid.
– 5 to 6 W/(m2 Ko ) for normal pressure & calm winds
– 0.4 W/(m2 Ko ) or so for low pressure
• In the space environment, where air pressure is at a
minimum, convection heat transfer is not very important.
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
7
Conduction
• Requires a temperature gradient (dT/dx) and some kind of
material to convey the energy
Qcond = k A ( dT / dx )
• The surface area exposed to conduction is given by A in m 2
• The coefficient k is the thermal conductivity of the material.
– 0.01 W/(m2 Ko ) for styrofoam
– 0.04 W/(m2 Ko ) for rock wool, cork, fiberglass
– 205 W/(m2 Ko ) for aluminium
• Need to integrate the gradient over the geometry of the
conductor.
– Q = k A ((T1-T2)/L) for a rod of area A and length L
– Q = 4 k r (r + x) ((T1-T2)/x) for a spherical shell of radius r and
thickness x
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
8
Radiation
• Requires a temperature difference between two bodies, but no
matter is needed to transfer the heat
Qrad = A ( T14 – T24 )
• The Stefan-Boltzmann constant, , value is 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4
• The surface area involved in radiative heat transfer is given by A
in m2
• The coefficient is the emissivity of the material.
–
–
–
–
Varies from 0 to 1
Equal to the aborptivity ( )at the same wavelength
A good emitter is also a good absorper
A good reflector is a bad emitter
• In the space environment, radiation will be the dominant heat
transfer mechanism between the payload & environment
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
9
Emissivity & Absorptivity 1
• Kirchoff’s Law of Thermal Radiation: At thermal
equilibrium, the emissivity of a body (or surface)
equals its absorptivity
• A material with high reflectivity (e.g. silver) would
have a low absorptivity AND a low emissivity
– Vacuum bottles are “silver” coated to stop radiative
emission
– Survival “space” blankets use the same principle
• Kirchoff’s Law requires an integral over all
wavelengths
• Thus, some materials are described as having different
absorptivity and emissivity value.
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
10
Emissivity & Absorptivity 2
•
Manufacturers define absorption and emission parameters over specific
(different) wavelength ranges
– Solar Absorptance ( s ): absorptivity for 0.3 to 2.5 micron wavelengths
– Normal Emittance ( n ): emissivity for 5 to 50 micron wavelengths
•
The Sun, Earth and deep space are all at different temperatures and,
therefore, emit power over different wavelengths
– A blackbody at the Sun’s temperature (~6,000 Ko) would emit between about 0.3
and 3 microns and at the Earth’s temperature (~290 Ko) would emit between
about 3 and 50 microns
• For space we want to absorb little of
the Sun’s power and transfer much
of the payload heat to deep space.
• Want a material with low s and
high n .
– Sherwin Williams white paint has
s of 0.35 and n of 0.85
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
11
Steady State Solution
• In a steady state all heat flows are constant and nothing
changes in the system
• Sum of all heat generators is equal to the sum of all heat
losses ( Qin = Qout )
Qrad
Ts
Qin
• Example flow of heat
Qcond
through a payload box wall
T
T
2
1
– Assume vacuum so no convection
– Input heat ( Qin ) generated by electronics flows through wall by
conduction and is then radiated to space.
Qcond = Qin or kA ( T1 – T2 ) / L = Qin
(1)
Qrad = Qin or A (T24 – Ts4 ) = Qin
(2)
– Use eq. 2 to determine T2 and then use eq. 1 to determine T1
• But real systems are never this simple
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
12
Balloon Environment is Complex
Qsun+Qalbedo+QIR+Qpower = Qr,space+Qr,Earth+Qc
• Multiple heat sources
– Direct solar input (Qsun), Sun
reflection (Qalbedo), IR from Earth
(QIR), Experiment power (Qpower)
• Multiple heat sinks
– Radiation to space (Qr,space),
Radiation to Earth (Qr,Earth),
Convection to atmosphere (Qc)
• Equation must be solved by
iteration to get the external
temperature
• Then conduct heat through
insulation to get internal
temperature
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
13
Solar Input Is Very Important
• Nominal Solar Constant value is 1370 W / m2
• Varies ~2% over year due to Earth orbit eccentricity
• Much larger variation due to solar inclination angle
– Depends upon latitude, time of year & time of day
• Albedo is reflection of sun from Earth surface or clouds
– Fraction of solar input depending on surface conditions under payload
ATIC-02 data showing effects of daily variation of sun input
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
14
Other Important Parameters
• IR radiation from the Earth is absorbed by the payload
– Flux in range 160 to 260 W/m2, over wavelength range ~5 to 50
microns, depending on surface conditions
– Radiation is absorbed in proportion of Normal Emittance ( n )
• Heat is lost via radiation to Earth and deep space
– Earth temperature is 290 Ko and deep space is 4 Ko
• There is also convective heat loss to the residual atmosphere
– Atmosphere temperature ~260 Ko
• For a 8 cm radius, white painted sphere at 100,000 feet above
Palestine, TX on 5/21 at 7 am local time with 1 W interior
power:
Qsun = 9.5 W,
Qr,Earth = 0.1 W,
LSU 06/21/2
Qalbedo = 3.7 W,
Qr,Space = 15.3 W,
QIR = 1.6 W
Qconv = 0.4 W
Thermal Issues
15
Application for BalloonSat
• Can probably neglect heat loss due to convection and
radiation to Earth
– Simplifies the equation you need to solve
• Need to determine if the solar inclination angle will be
important for your payload geometry
– e.g. a sphere will absorb about the same solar radiation regardless
of time of day and latitude
• Spend some time convincing yourself that you know
values for your payload surface s and n and your
insulation k.
• Biggest problem will be to estimate albedo and Earth IR
input
– Use extremes for albedo and IR to bracket your temperature range
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
16
References
•
“HyperPhysics” web based physics concepts, calculators and examples by Carl
R. Nave, Department of Physics & Astronomy, Georgia State University
–
–
–
–
–
•
Home page at http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hph.html#hph
Thermodynamics at http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/heacon.html#heacon
Heat Transfer at http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/heatra.html#c1
Vacuum Flask at http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/vacfla.html#c1
Thermal Conductivity Table at http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/tables/thrcn.html#c1
Table of Solar Absorptance and Normal Emmittance for various materials by Dr.
Andrew Marsh and Caroline Raines of Square One research and the Welsh
School of Architecture at Cardiff University.
– http://www.squ1.com/index.php?http://www.squ1.com/materials/abs-emmit.html
•
Sun, Moon Altitude, Azimuth table generator from the U.S. Naval Observatory
–
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/AltAz.html
LSU 06/21/2
Thermal Issues
17