Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue1.1998:

Whither market forces in education?

Stephen Gorard
Sc ho o l o f Educ atio n, Unive rsity o f Wale s, Cardiff, UK

Provides an overview of some
of the fi ndings of a recently
completed study of school
choice in 33 local schools
which may be indicative of
the effect of an increase in
the marketisation of schools.
Since it is unlikely that
debate over parental choice
can be settled by theoretical
argument alone and it may
also be too early to understand the full implications of
the relevant recent government reforms in the UK,
results from research in other
sectors of education can be
used in the interim. Presents

research which is partly
based on a limited market
model of cheap fee-paying
schools. This market has
been established for a long
time, and so some of the
benefi ts or damage caused by
markets in education may
already be observable in
operation.

© Stephen Gorard
The author thanks the
ESRC for funding this
research, the schools and
families for participating in
it, and John Fitz for his
advice throughout.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt

1 2 / 1 [ 1998] 5 –1 3
MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]

Introduction
Sever a l th eor ists a n d w r iter s h ave su ggested
th a t a n in cr ea se in th e r igh ts of pa r en ts to
ch oose sch ools for th eir ch ildr en wou ld be
ben eficia l socia lly a n d edu ca tion a lly, wh ile,
on th e oth er h a n d, per h a ps a m a jor ity of
edu ca tion a l r esea r ch er s see th is policy a s
poten tia lly da m a gin g a n d divisive. Som e of
th eir a r gu m en ts a r e ou tlin ed below, bu t policy ch a n ges su ch a s th ose th a t took pla ce in
th e UK in th e 1980s n eed a con sider a ble tim e
befor e lon g-ter m tr en ds a r e clea r ly visible
(McP h er son a n d Willm s, 1987). Sin ce 1988
th er e h ave been sever a l em pir ica l stu dies
in vestiga tin g h ow th e “m a r k et” in sch ools
oper a tes a n d wh ich give som e in dica tion of
th ese lon ger -ter m tr en ds. However som e of

th e best wor k h a s been eith er ver y ea r ly, m a k in g u se of h istor ica l da ta (Adler et a l., 1989),
or ver y specifi c in its con cer n s (Ba gley, 1995).
Th er e h ave, in a ddition , been a ser ies of stu dies cen tr ed on givin g a dvice to pr ospective
pa r en t ch ooser s (Cox et a l., 1989). Som e m or e
r ecen t wor k s, su ch a s David et a l. (1994) a n d
Gew ir tz et a l. (1995), h ave been ba sed on ver y
sm a ll-sca le stu dies a llow in g little gen er a lisa tion wh ile u sin g, in on e ca se a t lea st, qu estion a ble m eth ods of a n a lysis (Gor a r d, 1997).
Also, despite th e r h etor ica l lin k between
ch oice a n d diver sity, few stu dies con sider th e
m a r k et in sch ools a s a wh ole, w ith th e focu s
ten din g to be on loca l edu ca tion a u th or ity
con tr olled sch ools or gr a n t-m a in ta in ed
sch ools or a sm a ll pr opor tion of th e pr iva te
sector. It is in th is clim a te th a t a stu dy of a
gen u in e a n d lon g-esta blish ed m a r k et in
sch ools a lon gside th e m or e r ecen t m a r k et of
pu blicly-fu n ded sch ools ca n be of a ssista n ce.
Th is pa per is in two m a in section s. Th e fir st
con ta in s a br ief discu ssion of som e of th e
idea s th a t ca n be a dva n ced both for a n d

a ga in st th e r ecen t in cr ea sed pa r en ta l ch oice
of sch ools in E n gla n d a n d Wa les. It illu str a tes
som e of th e difficu lties in tr yin g to pr edict
th e ou tcom e of policy ch a n ges, a n d pr ovides a
ser ies of qu estion s to be a ddr essed by
r esea r ch in th is a r ea . Th e secon d section
in clu des a n ou tlin e m eth odology a n d a su m m a r y of per tin en t r esu lts fr om a r ecen tly
com pleted stu dy of sch ool ch oice. In th is w ay,

th e secon d section h igh ligh ts a n d ten ta tively
a n swer s som e of th e qu estion s in th e fir st.

Market forces in education
Th er e h a s n ever been a n y pr eten ce th a t com pr eh en sive sch ools in th e UK befor e 1988 wer e
a ll of equ a l qu a lity, wh eth er th a t qu a lity w a s
m ea su r ed in fu n din g, a ca dem ic ou tcom es or
pa r en ta l sa tisfa ction . Th e pr oblem for th ose
con cer n ed w a s to tr y a n d a ssess th a t “qu a lity” – a n ecessa r y pr ecu r sor to a n y a ttem pt to
equ a lise pr ovision . Th e in tr odu ction of
gr ea ter m a r k et for ces h a s been seen by som e,

su ch a s Keith J oseph , a s a solu tion to both
pr oblem s (E dw a r ds et a l., 1992). Th eir a r gu m en t is a sim ple on e. P a r en ts a s th e u ser s of a
sch ool ca n r ecogn ise its “qu a lity” a n d th ey
w a n t wh a t is best for th eir ow n ch ild (e.g.
Levin , 1992). Givin g th em th e ch oice of a n ew
sch ool r evea ls th e r ela tive qu a lity of sch ools
in ter m s of th eir popu la r ity a n d gives ever yon e equ a lity of a ccess to th e “better ” on es
(Cook son , 1994; Tooley, 1994).
Sch ool ch oice h a s been ava ila ble for pa r en ts in th e UK, to som e exten t, for a lon g tim e,
a s it h a s in th e USA (Witte, 1990a ). In a system
of a lloca tin g pla ces to sch ools ba sed on a
ca tch m en t a r ea , pa r en ts h a d th e r igh t to
m ove h ou se, a n d som e cou ld opt ou t of th e
sta te-fu n ded sch ool a n d sen d th eir ch ild to a
fee-payin g sch ool. E a ch of th ese ch oice str a tegies r equ ir ed fi n a n ce, a n d so th e ca tch m en t
system pr ovided ch oice on ly to th ose wh o
cou ld a ffor d it (Mayn a r d, 1975). Th e E du ca tion Refor m Act 1988 (E RA), w ith th e ea r lier
Assisted P la ces Sch em e, h a s, h owever, given
ever y ch ild a d e ju re r igh t to a tten d a lm ost
a n y sch ool in th e cou n tr y, in clu din g a n u m ber of fee-payin g on es, a n d so ca n be seen a s

exten din g th e lu xu r y of ch oice, a n d sh a r in g
th e pr ivile ges of th e élite m or e even ly.
P a r en ta l ch oice of sch ools, on th e oth er h a n d,
ca n be seen a s a loca l for m of r efer en du m ,
w ith pr ospective pa r en ts a s th e elector a te,
bu t w ith th e con stitu en cies so sm a ll th a t loca l
voices ca n be tr u ly effective, a n d ea ch sch ool
ca n , in th eor y, ca ter for a differ en t set of
“clien ts”. In th is w ay, a dvoca tes cla im th a t th e
“dicta tor sh ip” of u n ifor m pu blic m on opoly
sch ools ca n be br ok en , a n d w ith it th e socia l

[5 ]

Ste phe n Go rard
Whithe r marke t fo rc e s in
e duc atio n?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 5 –1 3

[6 ]

str a tifica tion th a t r ou tin ely ta k es pla ce in
sch ools u sin g a ca tch m en t system .
In th is m odel, on e of th e pr er equ isites n ecessa r y for com petition to lea d to a n y im pr ovem en t in edu ca tion a l ou tcom es is th e cor r ect
m ixtu r e of “a ler t” a n d “in er t” clien ts
(Hir sch m a n , 1970). Th ose pa r en ts wh o a r e
m or e a ler t to edu ca tion a l r igh ts, pr oblem s,
a n d oppor tu n ities pr ovide th e stim u lu s for
ch a n ge eith er by exer cisin g th eir “voice” to
th e gover n or s of th e sch ool, or by sign a llin g
th eir dissa tisfa ction th r ou gh exit. Un for tu n a tely it is lik ely to be th e pa r en ts m ost lik ely
to br in g a bou t ch a n ge wh o a r e a lso th ose
m ost lik ely to leave (Willm s a n d E ch ols, 1992),
a n d th e effect of th is h a s been sh ow n in th e
r a pid declin e of som e u r ba n sch ools in th e
USA wh en r ejected by th e m iddle cla sses
(Witte, 1990b). It th er efor e fa lls to th e m or e
in er t pa r en ts, th ose per h a ps less a ttu n ed to

th e situ a tion , to pr ovide th e ba sis of loya l
clien ts, wh o give th e sch ool tim e, a n d a “dolla r cu sh ion ”, for a n y im pr ovem en ts to ta k e
effect. Both a r e n ecessa r y. If m ost pa r en ts a r e
“in er t”, ch oice does n ot stim u la te com petition . If m ost a r e “a ler t”, it m ay ca u se pr oblem s for sch ools tr yin g to expa n d, a n d so
su ffer in g in th e sh or t ter m , lea din g to
a n oth er exodu s, a n d n ot en ou gh sta bility for
a n y su bsta n tive m ea su r es to be seen to ta k e
effect. In th eor y th e m er e th r ea t of exit m ay
be su fficien t to m a k e su pplier s a n xiou s to
r espon d to th eir cu stom er s’ n eeds, bu t, in
pr a ctice, im pr ovem en ts in sch ools ca n ta k e
yea r s to becom e obviou s in th e for m of qu a n tifia ble ou tcom es, wh ich w ill be too lon g to
w a it for a selfi sh a gen t w ith on ly on e sh ot a t
edu ca tion . It is m u ch ea sier to leave th a n to
a r ticu la te th e pr oblem w ith th e cu r r en t ser vice (e.g. Cook son , 1994).
E viden ce on th e existen ce a n d pr opor tion
of th ese two types of clien ts in society is con flictin g. On th e on e h a n d, th e Ca r n e gie Fou n da tion r epor t estim a tes th a t in US sta tes
wh er e sch ool ch oice h a s been a dopted, less
th a n 2 per cen t of pa r en ts pa r ticipa te in th e
pr ogr a m m e (Cook son , 1994). Th er e is, h ow ever, a n in dica tion th a t th e n u m ber of pa r en ts

pr epa r ed to becom e in volved in ch oice is
gr ow in g in both th e USA a n d UK (E ch ols et
a l., 1990), a n d th a t th e poor er fa m ilies a r e
becom in g ju st a s in volved a s a n y oth er section of society (Ba u ch , 1989). It m ay be th a t
som e fa m ilies a r e n a tu r a l con su m er s, u sed to
m a k in g ch oices, a n d th ese a r e th e m in or ity,
or per h a ps th e élite, r epor ted in ea r ly r esu lts,
bu t th a t oth er s a r e n ot n ecessa r ily “in er t”.
Som e fa m ilies m ay sim ply be slower th a n
oth er s in becom in g aw a r e of th eir r igh ts to
ch oose a n d a ppea l, in wh ich ca se th e pr opor tion of “a ler t” clien ts wou ld be expected to
gr ow con tin u ou sly, a n d th er e is a lr ea dy

eviden ce th a t th is is h a ppen in g in th e UK. In
th e stu dy pr esen ted in th is pa per, ever y sin gle
pa r en t r efu sed a pla ce in som e of th e m ost
popu la r LE A sch ools in Sou th Wa les in 1995
wen t to a ppea l a n d th e h ea r in gs wer e h eld en
m a sse.
On th e oth er h a n d, wh ile ch oice m ay h ave

led to a la r ger élite, th ese m ay still be en joyin g a pr efer en tia l edu ca tion a t th e expen se of
oth er s (Tom lin son , 1994). Active ch oice is
m or e com m on a m on g better edu ca ted a n d
h igh er socia l cla ss fa m ilies (E ch ols et a l.,
1990), bein g lin k ed to h om e-ow n er sh ip a n d
socio-econ om ic sta tu s (Adler et a l., 1989), a n d
m or e pr estigiou s occu pa tion s (Willm s a n d
E ch ols, 1992). Th is tr en d m ay be in cr ea sin g
th e se gr e ga tion between sch ools in ter m s of
th eir m ea n socio-econ om ic sta tu s, a n d a ll of
th e pu pil ch a r a cter istics th a t h ave been fou n d
to be a ssocia ted w ith it. As befor e, ch ildr en
m ay be disa dva n ta ged by pa r en ts wh o do n ot
va lu e edu ca tion , wh o con don e tr u a n cy, or
w a n t th eir ch ildr en to avoid exposu r e to n or m a l socia lisin g exper ien ces (Colem a n , 1990).
An oth er objection to th e m a r k etisa tion of
sch ools is th a t th ey do n ot pr ovide typica l
con su m er goods, sin ce th eir qu a lity is ch iefl y
deter m in ed by th e qu a lity of th eir cu stom er s
(N a tion a l Com m ission on E du ca tion , 1993).

Th er e is im per fect com petition between
sch ools, a n d im per fect in for m a tion on wh ich
“con su m er s” m ay ju dge th em (Ha h n , 1988).
“E xit” is on e pr oposed m ech a n ism of con tr ol
in a m a r k et or ga n isa tion , bu t th is is n ot a n
option th a t con su m er s of edu ca tion a r e lik ely
to u se ver y m u ch . Th e disr u ption ca u sed by
m ovin g sch ool m ay be too gr ea t for it to be
ver y effective. Per h a ps th e biggest obsta cle is
th a t LE A sch ools a r e n ot r u n for pr ofit a n d so
if dem a n d ou tstr ips su pply in a n y sch ool, it
ca n lea d to pr oblem s (Boyd et a l., 1994).
Ra th er th a n r a isin g pr ices or expa n din g its
cu stom er ba se, a n over -su bscr ibed sch ool
m ay sim ply r a ise a dm ission sta n da r ds
(a lth ou gh it is in ter estin g to see wh a t h a ppen s in th e m or e or th odox m a r k et of feepayin g sch ools, e.g. Gor a r d, 1996a ). In wh a t
h a s been ter m ed elsewh er e th e “qu a si-m a r k et” of pu blic edu ca tion (e.g. Le Gr a n d a n d
Ba r tlett, 1993), pa r en ts ca n ch oose a sch ool,
bu t do n ot h ave a r igh t to u se th e sch ool of
th eir ch oice, u n less it h a s spa r e pla ces. In th is
situ a tion , th e sch ool m ay becom e m or e selective in its pu pils en tr y r equ ir em en ts. Su ch a
policy wou ld pr esu m a bly a llow th e sch ool to
pr odu ce better pu blic exa m in a tion r esu lts, by
in cr ea sin g th e a bility of its in ta k e, bu t w ith ou t a ctu a lly im pr ovin g its tea ch in g. As th e
r ela tive su pply of pu pils dw in dles, power of
selection m oves to sch ools, wh ich ca n dr ive
u p th e en tr y r equ ir em en ts, a n d r edu ce th e
effor t r equ ir ed to m a in ta in su per ior ity over

Ste phe n Go rard
Whithe r marke t fo rc e s in
e duc atio n?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 5 –1 3

The re is alre ady so me
e vide nc e that sc ho o l
re spo nse s to marke t
de mands are disc riminating
against blac k familie s and
gro ups, and a c o urt in the
UK has rule d that the right
to c ho o se o ve rride s the
Rac e Re latio ns Ac t.

oth er sch ools in ter m s of r aw in dica tor s.
Th u s a m a r k et ca n lea d to com pla cen cy a n d
dem otiva tion for su ccessfu l sch ools, em u la tion of th eir con ser va tism by th ose less su ccessfu l, a n d so to dis-im pr ovem en t over a ll.
A policy of “im pr ovem en t” th r ou gh selection
of in ta k e m ay m a k e sen se for a sch ool in th e
m a r k et, bu t it is on ly cosm etic, n ot m a k in g
a n y sch ool m or e effective. It m u st a lso be
r eflected in a declin e in r esu lts elsewh er e.
In r ea lity th e sch ools wou ld be m a k in g th e
ch oice, a n d n ot th e pa r en ts. A policy of selection by sch ools ca n th er efor e a lso lea d to
se gr e ga tion by fir st la n gu a ge, gen der or
socia l cla ss, a s sch ools u se pr ofi les of a n
“aver a ge” su ccessfu l ca n dida te in or der to
pr edict fu tu r e su ccess. Th e r ecen t r ise in
exclu sion s, a n d a ssocia ted a ppea ls, su ggests
th a t sch ools a r e tr yin g to scr een ou t wh a t
th ey see a s pr oblem pu pils (Ba ll, 1994).Th er e
is a lr ea dy som e eviden ce th a t sch ool
r espon ses to m a r k et dem a n ds a r e discr im in a tin g a ga in st bla ck fa m ilies a n d gr ou ps, a n d
a cou r t in th e UK h a s r u led th a t th e r igh t to
ch oose over r ides th e Ra ce Rela tion s Act
(Bla ir, 1994). Th e pa r a dox of ch oice
pr ogr a m m es is th a t, a lth ou gh th ey a r e popu la r w ith poor er u r ba n fa m ilies, r ecen t im m igr a n ts, n on -wh ites, a n d less pr estigiou s socioecon om ic cla sses, th ese m ay be th e ver y types
of fa m ilies wh o m ay be lea st lik ely to u se
th eir ch oice (Lee et a l.,1994).
Sever a l poin ts ca n be m a de a ga in st th ese
objection s, in a ddition to th e eviden ce th a t
th e pr opor tion of a ler t clien ts is gr ow in g,
especia lly a m on g th e poor er a n d m in or ity
fa m ilies. Sin ce in com e a n d wea lth a r e
u n equ a lly distr ibu ted in society th is w ill
in evita bly lea d to u n equ a l a ccess to edu ca tion
in a fr ee m a r k et. Poor er fa m ilies w ill h ave
fewer fu n ds for tr avel, a n d a ddition a l con tr ibu tion s to sch ools, a n d less oppor tu n ity to
m ove (in tr odu ction in Ma n ley-Ca sim ir, 1982).
However, th is h a s a lw ays been tr u e, even
u n der a ca tch m en t system , a n d ca n be seen a s
a n a r gu m en t for gr ea ter equ a lity in society,
a n d n ot on e a ga in st pa r en ta l ch oice per se. If
in equ a lity is seen a s u n desir a ble in its ow n
r igh t, its existen ce sh ou ld n ot th er efor e be
a ccepted a s a “given ”, a n d th en u sed to a r gu e
a ga in st ch oice. E du ca tion , by itself, ca n n ot be
expected to solve m a jor societa l in ju stices.
Th e eviden ce th a t sch ools seen a s su ccessfu l
w ill be over loa ded w ith a pplica tion s su ggests
th a t th er e a r e m a n y pa r en ts n ot h a ppy w ith
th eir cu r r en t n eigh bou r h ood sch ools. Th is is,
in itself, eviden ce of th e n eed for ch a n ge in
sch ools, a n d of th e en th u sia sm of pa r en ts for
th eir in cr ea sed ch oice. It is n ot a t a ll clea r
th a t a policy of n ot a llow in g th e pa r en ts in th e
less desir a ble sch ools to expr ess th eir dissa tisfa ction is pr efer a ble in a n y w ay. Th e ba sic

pr oblem a t pr esen t lies in th e a bility of UK
sch ools to tu r n pu pils aw ay on ce th eir sta n da r d n u m ber, a com pletely a r bitr a r y fi gu r e, is
r ea ch ed. It is th is wh ich m ay lea d to selection , a n d cou ld be pr even ted by su pplem en ta r y le gisla tion , a llow in g su ccessfu l sch ools
to expa n d. It m ay be th a t a s sch ools gr ow a n d
be gin to oper a te on split sites, in “por ta k a bin s” a n d em ploy tea ch er s fr om sch ools
w ith declin in g r olls, th eir a ttr a ctiven ess m ay
declin e, a n d a n equ ilibr iu m be r ea ch ed w ith ou t a sin gle pu pil h avin g to be tu r n ed aw ay.
On e pr oblem for th e m odel of con su m er
ch oice in edu cation is th a t it oper a tes m a xim a lly in u r ba n or su bu r ba n envir on m en ts.
Low popu la tion den sity a n d tr avel r estr iction s m ea n th a t m a n y fa m ilies in r u r a l a r ea s
effectively h ave n o ch oice a t a ll. E a r ly r epor ts
su ggest th a t a ctive ch oice, or deselection of
th e loca l sch ool, is con sequ en tly m u ch h igh er
in u r ba n a r ea s th a n r u r a l (Adler et a l., 1989),
a n d in a r ea s wh er e th er e a r e m or e sch ools
(E ch ols et a l., 1990). Som e r u r a l a r ea s a r e in
fa ct still r u n n in g a pu r e ca tch m en t a r ea system , a lloca tin g pla ces by pr oxim ity wh er e a
sch ool is over -su bscr ibed (Ha m m on d a n d
Den n ison , 1995). Men ter et a l. (1995) fin d little
eviden ce th a t pa tter n s of en r olm en t in pr im a r y sch ools h ave been a ffected by th e m a r k et sin ce 1988. Th is is fu r th er com plica ted by
a dm in istr a tive r u les r ela tin g to fr ee sch ool
tr a n spor t. Som e pa r en ts a r e of cou r se still
pr epa r ed to pay for tr a n spor t, or to dr ive
th em selves, bu t su ch a str a tegy is likely to
h ave socia l cla ss im plica tion s. It is clea r th a t
for ch oice to wor k , tr avel costs m u st be ta ken
in to con sider a tion in a n y pla n s to r eta in
equ ity of pr ovision . However, it is n ot clea r
wh eth er th e opposition to ch oice ba sed on th e
u n even distr ibu tion of sch ools a n d popu lation
den sity a ssu m es th at sch ool ch oice is a “good
th in g” of wh ich som e a r e bein g depr ived, or
wh eth er it is a “ba d th in g” in wh ich ca se
th ose in r u r a l a r ea s, wh er e it is im possible to
im plem en t, a r e better off, a n d ca n h a r dly be
u sed a s th e ba sis for a n objection .
Ch oice sch ools a r e n ow en ga ged in r iva lr y
for expa n sion a n d su r viva l, wh ich m ay be
lea din g to a “du ll u n ifor m ity” of pr ovision in
th e UK (Tom lin son , 1994). All sch ools a r e
a im in g to follow m a jor ity tr en ds, a n d n on e is
r espon din g to th e diver sity a m on g pa r en ts by
pr ovidin g a distin ctive k in d of sch ool, a n d
th en ta r getin g th eir poten tia l con su m er s
(Woods, 1992). Per h a ps th e r ea son th a t
sch ools a r e bein g so u n a dven tu r ou s a n d u n r espon sive is th a t th ey do n ot h ave good
pr ocesses for lea r n in g or r espon din g to
ch a n ges fr om ou tside (Levin a n d Riffel, 1997).
Th is is n ot du e to ill-w ill or in com peten ce bu t
“lon g-in gr a in ed pa tter n s of th ou gh t a n d
beh aviou r ” (Levin a n d Riffel, 1995, p. 1),

[7 ]

Ste phe n Go rard
Whithe r marke t fo rc e s in
e duc atio n?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 5 –1 3

wh ich is wh y it m igh t be th a t th e a dven t of
ch oice w ill be both less ben efi cia l th a n a dvoca tes su ggest, a n d less h a r m fu l th a n cr itics
fea r. Wh a tever th e lon g-ter m con sequ en ces,
for good or ill, of th e r ecen t ch a n ges in th e
UK, som e ch ildr en w ill fin d th em selves
str a n ded in declin in g sch ools. Alth ou gh su ch
sch ools m ay even tu a lly close, a n y im pr ovem en ts th r ou gh m a r k et-dr iven evolu tion w ill
r equ ir e “ca su a lties”. It is th er efor e possible
to a r gu e th a t th e ch ildr en in th ese sch ools a r e
th e for gotten victim s of th e ch oice pr ocess,
a lth ou gh it is a lso possible to cla im th a t th e
sch ools th ey a tten d wer e “fa ilin g” a n yw ay, a s
eviden ced by th eir declin e in r oll sin ce th e
a dven t of ch oice, a n d so, a lth ou gh th er e h a s
been n o im pa ct for th e r u m p, ch oice h a s a ctu a lly r edu ced th e n u m ber of ca su a lties.
At th e cor e of a pr ogr a m m e of sch ool
im pr ovem en t th r ou gh m a r k et com petition
lies th e n otion of pa r en ta l ch oice. If pa r en ts
m a k e good ch oices, th e m odel wor k s well, a t
lea st in th eor y, a n d if th ey do n ot, th e m a r k et
fa ils to deliver. People do n ot gen er a lly m a k e
r a tion a l ch oices, pa r tly th r ou gh in a bility to
cope w ith u n cer ta in ties, pr oba bilities, a n d
th e “law of sm a ll n u m ber s”. People u su a lly
“lim it th em selves to on e sa lien t dim en sion
wh ile scr een in g ou t dim en sion s th a t su ggest
a differ en t solu tion ” (E iser a n d va n der
P ligh t, 1988, p. 99). Th e difficu lties in a ctin g
ou t th e r ole of con su m er of edu ca tion a r e
im m en se. In or der to be a ble to ch oose effectively, pa r en ts n eed a ccess to th e option s
ava ila ble, con ven ien t geogr a ph ica l a ccess to
m or e th a n on e sch ool, va lid in for m a tion
a bou t th e a lter n a tives, h elp to a r ticu la te th eir
n eeds, fa m ilia r ity w ith pr esen t edu ca tion a l
pr ogr a m m es, th e ca pa city to u n der sta n d th e
in for m a tion , a n d th e tim e to con sider a n d
r eview it (Raven , 1989). In pr a ctice, to m a k e a
ch oice ba sed on th e effectiven ess of a sch ool,
on e n eeds to be clea r wh a t th e objective of
edu ca tion is, bu t th is is som eth in g th a t even
pr ofession a l tea ch er s a n d r esea r ch a ca dem ics ca n n ot a gr ee on . P a r en ts ca n n ot be
expected to m a k e su ch ch oices a ccor din g to
Th iessen (1982). Som e pa r en ts a r e u sin g th e
r aw exa m in a tion per for m a n ce in dica tor s
(Willm s a n d E ch ols, 1992), a n d so a r e ch oosin g th e pa st pu pils of a sch ool, a n d n ot th e
sch ool itself. Th er e m ay be a n elem en t of
su per stition in volved in sen din g a ch ild of
wh a tever a bility to a sch ool in wh ich oth er
ch ildr en of u n k n ow n a bility h ave pr eviou sly
don e well in exa m in a tion s.

The fee-paying model
Th e pr eviou s section exa m in ed som e of th e
poin ts m a de in th e deba te over th e u se of

[8 ]

m a r k et for ces in edu ca tion , a n d sh owed h ow
difficu lt it is to decide on th e lik ely ou tcom es,
especia lly a s th e UK le gisla tion a ppea r s to
con ta in con tr a dictor y elem en ts. Sin ce th e
r esu lts of policy ch a n ges ca n ta k e a lon g tim e
to becom e clea r, it m a k es sen se to u se th e
lon g-esta blish ed m a r k et of fee-payin g sch ools
a s pa r t of a stu dy in or der to tr y a n d pr edict
wh a t th e effects of m a r k etisa tion m ay be in
th e sta te sector. For in sta n ce, wou ld a m ove
tow a r ds a m or e or th odox m a r k et by a llow in g
sch ools to oper a te for pr ofit lea d to th e
a dva n ces pr edicted by som e (Colem a n a n d
Hoffer, 1987; Tooley, 1995)? Also, given th a t
ch oice is seen by som e a s a n a n tidote to str a tifica tion a n d socia l r epr odu ction in edu ca tion ,
a n d by oth er s a s a m a jor ca u se of it, it w ill be
in ter estin g to see to wh a t exten t fee-payin g
sch ools a r e élitist, a n d to wh a t exten t th ey a r e
com pen sa tor y. F in a lly, a s it is n ot clea r
wh eth er pa r en ts a r e ca pa ble of m a k in g r a tion a l ch oices a bou t sch ools, even wh en th ey
beh ave a s “self-in ter est m a xim isin g” in dividu a ls, dou bt m u st be ca st on th e possibility of
u sin g in cr ea sed ch oice a s a n en gin e for
im pr ovin g sch ools. Aga in , th e fee-payin g
sector ca n sh ed som e ligh t on th is, th e k in ds
of ch oices m a de by fa m ilies, th e exten t to
wh ich th e sch ools a r e dr iven by th eir “con su m er s’” pr efer en ces, a n d u ltim a tely th e
com pa r a tive qu a lity of th e sch ools.
It m igh t be cou n ter ed th a t fee-payin g
sch ools, a lth ou gh clea r ly a gen u in e m a r k et in
wh ich m on ey a ctu a lly ch a n ges h a n ds, a ctu a lly r epr esen t a ver y lim ited m odel beca u se of
pu pil selection by a ca dem ic a bility a n d
pa r en ta l in com e. Su ch a view stem s fr om th e
fin din gs of wor k ba sed pr im a r ily in E n gla n d
a n d in th e so-ca lled “pu blic” sch ools (Fox,
1990; Wh itty et a l., 1989). Wa les h a s a ver y
differ en t fee-payin g sector to E n gla n d, a t lea st
in size (Gor a r d, 1996b), a n d even a cr oss th e
bor der th e élite sch ools m ay n ot be r epr esen ta tive of th e m a jor ity of sh or t-lived poor ly
equ ipped tin y sch ools in th e sector, wh ich a r e
ver y r a r ely m en tion ed by r esea r ch er s wh o
a ppea r to th in k th a t pr iva te sch ools a r e by
defin ition élite sch ools ch a r gin g a t lea st
£3,300 pa a ccor din g to on e a ccou n t (E dw a r ds
a n d Wh itty, 1997). Th e la tter a r e in fa ct on ly
r efer r in g to th a t h a lf of th e pr iva te sector
spok en for by a ssocia tion s su ch a s th e In depen den t Sch ools In for m a tion Ser vice. Sin ce
th e m a jor ity of th e sch ool types in th e pr esen t
stu dy wer e n ot sta te-fu n ded, th ey h ave
existed in a m a r k et situ a tion for a lon ger
per iod of tim e th a n th eir LE A-con tr olled
com petitor s, a n d a lth ou gh th e defin in g ch a r a cter istic of th e pr iva te sch ools in th e su r vey
w a s th e paym en t of fees, th ese fees wer e often
low – £300 pa in on e in sta n ce – a n d wer e a n yw ay n ot pa id in fu ll by m a n y of th eir u ser s.

Ste phe n Go rard
Whithe r marke t fo rc e s in
e duc atio n?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 5 –1 3

Sin ce th ese sch ools wer e a lso gen er a lly
u n der -su bscr ibed, a n d declin in g in size,
wh ile becom in g in cr ea sin gly n on -selective of
pu pils on a n y gr ou n ds, in clu din g gen der,
a bility, a n d r eligion , th e m a r k et in wh ich th ey
oper a te is per h a ps a s fr ee a s is possible a t
pr esen t. Th e fin din gs fr om th is stu dy ca n
th er efor e be u sed to th r ow ligh t on som e
lik ely ou tcom es of th e obser ved in cr ea sed
m a r k etisa tion in th e sta te-fu n ded sch ools a lso
ta k in g pa r t in th e stu dy.
Th e fin din gs a r e ba sed on a stu dy of secon da r y sch ool ch oice in Sou th Wa les, u sin g a
n ew m eth odology for collectin g a n d
a n a lysin g da ta on sch ool ch oice a s a dvoca ted
in Gor a r d (1997). In su m m a r y, a su r vey w a s
ca r r ied ou t of 1,267 in dividu a ls w ith a n 80 per
cen t r espon se r a te, u sin g both pa r en ts a n d
ch ildr en , in both u r ba n a n d r u r a l settin gs,
befor e a n d a fter m a k in g th e ch oice of a n ew
sch ool. Th e 33 sch ools in th e stu dy wer e
selected a s a system a tica lly selected str a tified
sa m ple of th e fu ll r a n ge of types of sch ool
fou n d to be pr esen t in on e loca lised m a r k et.
Th e im por ta n ce of stu dyin g a specifi c m a r k et
a t on e pla ce a n d tim e ca n n ot be over str essed
(e.g. Lover in g, 1990), sin ce th e effects of im plem en tin g a n a tion a l edu ca tion a l policy a r e
r a r ely u n ifor m (Rees et a l., 1997), a n d it is
on ly by m a k in g th e m er ely loca l fa ctor s
explicit (a s w a s don e h er e) th a t th ey ca n be
isola ted so th a t th e r esu lts ca n be seen a s
r eleva n t to oth er a r ea s (Gor a r d et a l., 1997).
Th e in str u m en t u sed in th e su r vey con ta in ed
95 qu estion s, in clu din g a t lea st on e ba sed on
ea ch r ea son for ch oosin g a sch ool th a t h a d
been en cou n ter ed in pr eviou s r esea r ch . P r in cipa l com pon en ts a n a lysis w a s u sed to r edu ce
th e m a jor ity of th ese va r ia bles to seven fa ctor s u n der lyin g th e r epor ted r ea son s for
ch oice, wh ile clu ster a n a lysis w a s u sed to
r edu ce th e 33 sch ools in volved in to seven
differ en t types (Gor a r d, 1996c). Th e r esu lts
wer e “tr ia n gu la ted” w ith th ose fr om in ter view s w ith selected fa m ilies, in ter view s w ith
pr in cipa l a ctor s in th e sch ools, a n d obser va tion of th e ch a r a cter istics of th e ch osen
sch ools. Th is com bin a tion , a lon g w ith th e u se
of loglin ea r m odels to pr edict th e ch oice of
sch ool, h a s pr oba bly n ot been a ttem pted
befor e.

Findings from the fee-paying model
P a r en ts u sin g fee-payin g sch ools, in gen er a l,
h ave n o ba ck gr ou n d in pr iva te edu ca tion , a n d
m ost h ave u sed sta te-fu n ded sch ools for th e
ch ild in qu estion or its siblin gs. Ar ou n d a
qu a r ter r eceive h elp fr om th e sch ools or gover n m en t in th e for m of fees con cession s, a n d
pr oba bly m a n y m or e a r e h elped by r ela tives,
especia lly th e gr a n dpa r en ts. Th er e is n o clea r
th r esh old of a ffor da bility, a n d, to som e

fa m ilies, payin g for edu ca tion r a th er th a n a
h oliday, for exa m ple, is ju st a m a tter of pr ior ities. Th e level of fees r a r ely dicta tes ch oice of
sch ool w ith in th e sector. Th e pa r en ts con cer n ed a r e often u pw a r dly m obile r a th er th a n
tr a dition a lly m iddle cla ss, w ith a h igh pr opor tion fr om r eligiou s m in or ity ba ck gr ou n ds,
a n d r ecen t in -m igr a n ts to Sou th Wa les.
Th er efor e, if fee-payin g sch ools a r e playin g a
pa r t in socia l or cu ltu r a l r epr odu ction (cf.
Ma xwell a n d Ma xwell, 1995), it is n ot a dir ect
in -fa m ily k in d of r epr odu ction . It m ay a lso be
seen by pa r en ts, a n d especia lly ch ildr en , a s
a n open in g in to socia l n etwor k s of pr ivile ge
a n d in fl u en ce. Wh eth er it is a ctu a lly so in
m ost of th e focu s pr iva te sch ools is a deba ta ble poin t.
Th e sch ools th ey a r e u sin g a r e, in th e m a in ,
sm a ll co-edu ca tion a l n on -selective day
sch ools, w ith lim ited fa cilities a n d ver y lim ited spa ce a n d th is m ay expla in th e differ en ces between th eir u ser s a n d th ose of th e
élite sch ools of pr eviou s r esea r ch . Th e n u m ber of sch ools con sider ed by ea ch fa m ily is
sligh tly la r ger for fee-payer s, per h a ps
beca u se th ey h ave a w ider ch oice. Th e sch ools
a r e ch osen n ot for con ven ien ce, or th eir fa cilities, bu t beca u se th ey a r e sm a ll, n osta lgic,
a n d obta in r ea son a ble ou tcom es. Selection by
gen der a n d a bility is n ot a big issu e in th e
sector. Ma n y of th e pa r en ts w ith u n for tu n a te
exper ien ces of th e sta te sector a r e m a k in g a
n e ga tive ch oice – ch oice aw ay fr om a type of
sch ool – a n d th er e is som e eviden ce th a t th is
is pa r tly m otiva ted by dislik e of th e N a tion a l
Cu r r icu lu m . Th er e is little diver sity a m on g
Welsh sta te-fu n ded sch ools, a n d beca u se of
th e r ela tively low popu la tion den sity of pa r ts
of Sou th Wa les, a n d th e cover t ca tch m en t
a r ea s oper a ted by th e LE As, th er e is a lso little
ch oice for m ost fa m ilies. In th e fee-payin g
sector, th e situ a tion is sligh tly differ en t. Th e
fee-payin g sector is sm a ll a n d dim in ish in g,
a n d m ost of th e sch ools in it a r e ver y sm a ll
a n d sen sitive to tin y va r ia tion s in loca l su pply. For exa m ple, in 1994-95, over on e-qu a r ter
of th e sch ools in Sou th Wa les closed, open ed,
or m er ged. In m ost ca ses, th e “con su m er ”
a ble to cr oss th e “th r esh old of a ffor da bility”
h a s a gen u in e ch oice, in th a t th e sch ool
selected is u su a lly ver y h a ppy to a ccept a ll
com er s. On th e oth er h a n d, wh ile th er e a r e
or ga n isa tion a l differ en ces between th e
sch ools, th ese econ om ic th r ea ts a r e m a k in g
th em m or e sim ila r over tim e, both in r ea lity
a n d in th eir pr esen ta tion . All of th e ch a n ges
ta k in g pla ce a r e m ovin g sch ools tow a r ds
th eir m ost m a r k eta ble for m , wh ich is th a t
of th e m a jor ity of sch ools – a ll-a ge coedu ca tion a l, n on -selective, u r ba n day sch ools.
Ch oice a n d diver sity a r e n ot lin k ed in th is
m a r k et.

[9 ]

Ste phe n Go rard
Whithe r marke t fo rc e s in
e duc atio n?
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 5 –1 3

Analysis o f the le ague table s
o f pe rfo rmanc e o f the fe e paying sc ho o ls in So uth
Wale s give s a mixe d pic ture .
All suc h sc ho o ls whic h e nte r
c andidate s fo r GCSE have a
be nc hmark figure
c o nside rably highe r than the
ave rage fo r Wale s. Ho we ve r,
ne arly 5 0 pe r c e nt o f the
sc ho o ls e nte r no c andidate s,
e ithe r be c ause the y are so
small that the y have no
c hildre n in that ye ar, o r
be c ause the y o ffe r the ir
o wn c e rtific atio n.

[ 10 ]

In a m a r k et system of sch oolin g, a n y ben efi cia l effect on edu ca tion a s a wh ole r elies on
pa r en ts m a k in g “good” ch oices. In som e for m u la tion s of ch oice th eor y th is m igh t be
ta u tologou s, in th a t popu la r ch oices a r e by
defin ition good, a n d u n popu la r sch ools a r e
ba d. However a th eor y ca n n ot su r vive a s a
ta u tology, a n d so it m u st be possible to con sider th e qu a lity of th e decision s m a de in th is
stu dy in or der to a ssess th e lik ely ou tcom e of
th e exper im en t. Som e pa r en ts wer e fou n d to
h ave a com pletely in a ccu r a te idea of h ow
la r ge th e cla sses wer e in th e sch ools th ey
wer e u sin g, a n d of h ow good th e exa m in a tion
r esu lts a r e. Few k n ew wh a t th e fa cilities wer e
lik e, a n d th is ign or a n ce w a s foster ed by th e
sch ools wh ich pr esen t th em selves a s pr ettily
a s possible. Som e sch ools a r e bein g deliber a tely m islea din g in th e m a r k etin g a n d h a n dlin g of a pplica n ts. Of cou r se, som e of th ese
pa r en ts m ay be “ba d” ju dges, bu t to w r ite
th em a ll off a s su ch wou ld be to m iss th e
poin t. It does n ot m a tter wh eth er it is th e
sch ools m islea din g pa r en ts, or pa r en ts com pa r in g th e sch ools today to th ose th ey
a tten ded, th e r eleva n t fi n din g is th a t th e ser vice a n d in ter m edia te cla ss fa m ilies ta k in g
pa r t in th is r esea r ch wer e m a k in g decision s
con cer n in g sch ools ba sed on in a dequ a te
in for m a tion . Th is con clu sion is in gen er a l
a gr eem en t w ith th a t of West et a l. (1995), wh o
fou n d th a t a lth ou gh fa m ilies ta k e th e ch oice
of a n ew sch ool ser iou sly, th ey m ay n ot a ct
com peten tly in som e ca ses. P a r en ts m ay n ot
k n ow th eir r igh ts u n der th e law, or m ay n ot
u se th em th r ou gh la ck of sk ill, or fea r of th e
con sequ en ces. Sim ila r ly, Ma r tin (1995) fou n d
th a t even pa r en ts wh o wer e a ctive ch ooser s
sou gh t sch ools th a t wer e n oth in g lik e th e
cr iter ia th a t th ey set in itia lly. Th e a u th or
con clu ded th a t “th e existin g liter a tu r e
r ela ted to pa r en ta l ch oice in dica tes th a t pa r en ts h ave n eith er th e sk ills or th e in for m a tion a bou t sch ools to a ct in su ch a r a tion a l
w ay” (Ma r tin , 1995, p. 13). Th e fin din gs a lso
sh ow h ow im por ta n t th e r ole of th e ch ild is in
selectin g th e sch ool, often in a w ay th a t
m a k es a m ock er y of econ om ic th eor ies of
ch oice.
Th e stu dy h igh ligh ts two ph en om en a a ffectin g th e ch oice pr ocess, wh ich h ave tu r n ed
th ose sch ools wh ich a r e r espon sive to th e
dem a n ds of a m a r k et in to m or e con ser va tive
a n d tr a dition a l in stitu tion s – th e r efl ection
effect, wh ich is th e two-w ay in fl u en ce of th e
sch oolin g of th e pa r en ts, a n d th e dom in o
effect, wh ich is th e in flu en ce of th e sch oolin g
of elder siblin gs on sch ool ch oice. Th is stu dy
h a s sh ow n th e sim ila r ities of th ese two
pr ocesses of “dom in oes” a n d “r efl ection ”,
wh ich a r e discer n ible a cr oss both sector s, in
lea din g to ju dgem en ts ba sed on ou t-of-da te

in for m a tion . Th is fi n din g dr aw s a sh a r p
con tr a st to th e su pposed ou tcom es of m a r k et
th eor ies of ch oice, ba sed on cu r r en t per for m a n ce in dica tor s. On e of th e ou tcom es of
m a r k et for ces, in th e pr iva te sector a t lea st, is
th a t ch a n ge lea ds to r estor a tion of a m or e
tr a dition a l style. P a r en ts a r e a ttr a cted to
pr iva te sch ools beca u se th ey a r e sm a ll a n d
tr a dition a l, evoca tive of a pa st a ge (per h a ps a
m odel for th e gr a n t-m a in ta in ed sch ools
descr ibed by F itz et a l., 1995), a s well a s
a ppea r in g to offer th e ch a n ce of better ou tcom es in ter m s of cer tifica tion . Ch ildr en , a n d
to som e exten t th eir pa r en ts, a r e ch iefl y
a ttr a cted to th e a ppa r en t socia l sta tu s of
a tten din g a fee-payin g sch ool. Th ese a r e th e
ch ief in gr edien ts of th e m ix, a lth ou gh fr eedom fr om th e N a tion a l Cu r r icu lu m , fr eedom
fr om SATs a n d th e dispu tes over testin g –
wh a t on e pa r en t descr ibed a s “th e m ess th e
sta te system is in ” – a n d, in som e ca ses, r eligiou s deter m in a tion , a ll con tr ibu te th eir
pa r t. It is clea r th a t th e sch ools in qu estion
a r e gen er a lly sm a ll, a n d old-fa sh ion ed. Th ey
a r e exem pt fr om th e pr ovision s of th e E du ca tion Refor m Act 1988. Do th ey a lso offer th e
oppor tu n ity of better ou tcom es, or is th eir
r epu ta tion ba sed on th e per for m a n ce of a few
fa m ou s sch ools, on th e pr esen t policy of u sin g
r aw scor e in dica tor s, a n d on th e a ttr ibu tion
of qu a lity ca u sed by th e paym en t of fees?
An a lysis of th e lea gu e ta bles of per for m a n ce
of th e fee-payin g sch ools in Sou th Wa les gives
a m ixed pictu r e (Wester n M a il, 1995). All su ch
sch ools wh ich en ter ca n dida tes for GCSE
h ave a ben ch m a r k fi gu r e con sider a bly h igh er
th a n th e aver a ge for Wa les. However, n ea r ly
50 per cen t of th e sch ools en ter n o ca n dida tes,
eith er beca u se th ey a r e so sm a ll th a t th ey
h ave n o ch ildr en in th a t yea r, or beca u se th ey
offer th eir ow n cer tifica tion . In a ddition , th e
r em a in in g sch ools a s a wh ole a r e doin g little
better th a n aver a ge for Wa les a s a wh ole in
ter m s of th e pr opor tion of sch ool leaver s w ith
n o qu a lifica tion , or in ter m s of th e aver a ge
n u m ber of A-level poin ts ga in ed per ca n dida te. As a n extr em e exa m ple, on e of th e m ost
expen sive sch ools in Wa les en ter ed on ly 33 of
its 43 A-level stu den ts for A levels. Wh a t h a ppen ed to th e oth er ten is u n clea r. E ven so,
th ey a ch ieved over a ll r esu lts wh ich a r e wor se
th a n th e n a tion a l aver a ge, a n d wh ich h ave
been so for th e pa st th r ee yea r s. Th ese figu r es
m u st be con sider ed in th e ligh t of r eser va tion s expr essed a bou t r aw scor e ta bles, a n d
th e difficu lties of isola tin g a sch ool effect in
ou tcom es. However, even if th e r esu lts in
ta bles a r e ta k en a t fa ce va lu e, th ey give ver y
m ixed su ppor t to th e idea th a t pr iva te
sch ools, a s su ch , lea d to better exa m in a tion
r esu lts. Som e pr iva te sch ools in Wa les, a n d
som e sta te sch ools, ga in excellen t r esu lts.

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Oth er s do n ot. In gen er a l, th e tr a dition a l
sch ools ten d to be m or e selective, if on ly
beca u se of th e sch ola r sh ips a n d a ssisted
pla ces, wh ile th ey a r e a lso m or e expen sive.
It is th er efor e possible to a r gu e th a t th ese
sch ools h ave ba r r ier s isola tin g th em fr om th e
m a r k et, bu t th a t th e n ewer sch ools sh ou ld be
m u ch m or e sen sitive to m a r k et for ces. Yet,
w ith th e exception n oted a bove, tr a dition a l
sch ools gen er a lly h ave pu pils wh o obta in
better qu a lifica tion s a t a ll levels wh ile th e
n ew sch ools often h ave in dica tor s wh ich a r e
wor se th a n th e n a tion a l aver a ge, a n d th is
situ a tion gives n o su ppor t to th e m a r k et th eor ist view th a t pa r en t power w ill lea d to a ca dem ic im pr ovem en ts in edu ca tion .

Conclusion
It is too ea r ly to tell wh a t th e fu ll effects of
m a r k ets in edu ca tion w ill be, bu t it is be gin n in g to look a s th ou gh th e r efor m s a r e lik ely
to be both less effective th a n or igin a lly su ggested by som e, a n d less da m a gin g th a n
fea r ed by oth er s. Of cou r se, for som e it does
n ot m a tter wh a t th e in ten ded effects of a
ch oice pr ogr a m m e a r e – ch oice is a good
th in g by defin ition , a ccor din g to view s su ch
a s th e liber ta r ia n per spective of E r ick son
(1989). Sin ce th e sta te on ly in ter ven es in th e
h om e life of a ch ild – its cloth in g, sh elter, a n d
food – in ca se of n e glect or a bu se, it sh ou ld
beh ave in th e sa m e w ay w ith edu ca tion . How ever, a s fa r a s it ca n be dedu ced fr om th e for egoin g, th e pr ogn osis for th e effect of m a r k ets
on sch ools is n ot good. Th er e a r e in dica tion s
th a t th e pu r por tedly da m a gin g effects of th e
m a r k et in sch ools m ay be m or e of a pr oblem
in th e sh or t-ter m tr a n sition a n d ch a n geover.
In th e US ch oice exper im en ts it w a s obser ved
th a t “poor pa r en ts ta k e lon ger to a cqu ir e
in for m a tion ; over tim e th ey ca tch u p a n d
becom e aw a r e a t th e sa m e level a s n on -poor
pa r en ts” (Ba u ch , 1989, p. 302). A sim ila r tr en d
is obser va ble in Br ita in , w ith a r ise of 120 per
cen t in th e n u m ber of a ppea ls fr om 1990-94,
w ith th e r a te of in cr ea se r isin g ever y yea r.
However, in r ea lity, n oth in g m u ch h a s a ctu a lly ch a n ged. Sch ools still oper a te a system of
ca tch m en t, or selection by m or tga ge, cr ea tin g
edu ca tion a l gh ettos in som e a r ea s. P a r en ts
ca n still on ly expr ess a pr efer en ce. Som e of
th e pu r por tedly da m a gin g effects of m a r k etisa tion a r e in fa ct ba sed on th e la ck of a m a r k et str u ctu r e in sta te sch ools. Th e r ise in
a ppea ls pu ts pr essu r e on th e popu la r sch ools
to expa n d, wh ich th ey a r e u n a ble to do,
except in a ver y few ca ses, su ch a s th ose h opin g to ben efit fr om th e “Popu la r sch ools in itia tive” in Wa les to give a n extr a £23 m illion
to 12 sch ools (P yk e, 1995).

Sin ce th e fee-payin g sector h a s been in
existen ce a s a m a r k et for so m u ch lon ger, it is
possible to dr aw som e con clu sion s on th e
costs a n d ben efits of “con su m er ch oice”. On
th e positive side, a pplica n ts to pr iva te sch ools
a r e n ot gen er a lly tu r n ed aw ay, a n d so despite
th e ver y sm a ll n u m ber of fee-payin g sch ools
in Wa les, sever a l pa r en ts spok e of th e en or m ity of th e ch oice, especia lly, bu t n ot exclu sively, in u r ba n a r ea s. Given th e r ela tively
la r ge n u m ber of sta te sch ools in th e r e gion , it
ca n be im a gin ed wh a t th e im pa ct of a gen u in e
m a r k et in cor por a tin g fr ee ch oice wou ld be.
Beca u se th er e a r e n o “sta n da r d n u m ber s” in
m ost pr iva te sch ools, a pplica n ts do n ot gen er a lly h ave to r esor t to th e deceits a n d
su bter fu ges a ppa r en t in th e sta te sector.
Beca u se pr iva te sch ool u ser s a r e ch a r ged for
exa m in a tion en tr y, th eir pu blic exa m in a tion
en tr y policy is on e of th e a r ea s wh er e pa r en ts
ca n m a k e a differ en ce. P r iva te sch ools a r e
th er efor e gen er a lly m or e a dven tu r ou s in
m a k in g en tr ies, especia lly in dou ble en ter in g,
a n d selectin g a m bitiou s tier s a n d m odes for
m a r gin a l ca n dida tes. Th is is a h igh -r isk ,
h igh -poten tia l ga in policy, possibly givin g
better r esu lts for loca l pr iva te sch ools a t
GCSE level, bu t th eir h igh over a ll fa ilu r e r a te
m ay be pa r tly du e to th is. On e optim istic
fin din g for th e im pa ct of sch ool ch oice is th a t,
in gen er a l, pu pil a n d socia l selection in a n y
for m wer e n ot im por ta n t to th e fa m ilies in
th is r esea r ch .
On th e oth er h a n d, th e m a r k et is pu llin g
tow a r ds sim ila r ity of pr ovision , w ith som e
eviden ce th a t la r ger sch ools a r e esta blish in g
a qu a si-m on opoly. Th e fr a gm en ta tion of th e
sector, a n d th e la ck of a co-oper a tive in fr a str u ctu r e m ay pr esa ge wh a t w ill h a ppen in
th e sta te sector, in th e con text of a n en for ced
br ea k -u p of th e LE As. P r iva te sch ools still
seem m or e con cer n ed w ith pr om otin g th em selves th a n w ith wh a t pa r en ts a ctu a lly w a n t.
Th u s, th er e is little eviden ce th a t th e sch ools
in th is stu dy a ctu a lly pr ovide th e ch a r a cter istics dem a n ded by th e six ch oice fa ctor s fou n d
to be pa r ticu la r ly im por ta n t to pa r en ts in th is
stu dy (Gor a r d, 1996c), su ch a s pu pil sa fety
(Hu gill, 1993). If sta te sch ools follow su it a n d,
in a com petitive envir on m en t, spen d in cr ea sin g a m ou n ts on pr om otion , edu ca tion a s a
wh ole m ay be th e loser, wh a tever th e ben efits
of ch oice for th e in dividu a l. An edu ca tion
m a r k et, a s displayed by th e vola tile fee-payin g sector in Sou th Wa les, is a zer o-su m ga m e
(Sm edley, 1995). As on e sch ool w in s, a n oth er
loses, a n d so a s sch ools pu t m or e a n d m or e
in to m a r k etin g, th ey m ay, lik e Alice in Won der la n d, fin d th em selves r u n n in g fa ster a n d
fa ster ju st to k eep u p.

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Whithe r marke t fo rc e s in
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