An Analysis Of The Translation Of Cultural Terms In The Subtitling Of “Memoirs Of A Geisha” Movie

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Definition of Translation

  There are some definitons of translation and the following definitions have been selected. Bell (1991:6) also says "Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language".

  Nida and Taber (1982:12) state ‘translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in the term of meaning secondly in the term of style’.

  Kridalaksana (1999:19), “Penerjemahan sebagai pemindahan suatu amanat dari bahasa sumber ke dalam bahasa sasaran dengan pertama-tama mengungkapkan maknanya dan kemudian gaya bahasanya”. (Translation as transferring a message from SL to the TL by firstly expresses the meaning and then the style of language).

  Newmark (1988) states translation is an instrument of education and instrument in transmitting culture. Foreign communities have their own language structures and their own cultures, their own way of thinking and of expressing themselves, but all these can be explained by translation. He also gives the procedures to translate the cultural terms. He suggests that the translators should discuss the author’s life or general background to help them to understand the next.

  Newmark (1982) says translation theory attempt to give some insignt into the relation between thought, meaning, and language; included the understanding of cultures. He tries to emphasize that a translator has to bear in the intention of the original in mind through out his work; the same emotional and persuasive intentions as the original and the cultural flavour of the SL text.

  Dubois (1991: 5) says, “Translation is the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences".

  Bell (1991:6) also says "Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language".

  Based on those definitions above, it can be concluded that translation is an expression of transferring the original message of the original author into another language by using the exact meaning of words or the equivalent one and in terms of style.

2.2 Process of Translations

  Nida and Taber (1969) divides the process of translating into three stages system: 1) Analysis the SL message into its simplest and structurally clearest form; 2) Transfer the message; and 3) Restructures the message in the TL to the level which is most appropriate for the audience addressed.

  Diagram:

SOURCE LANGUAGE TARGET LANGUAGE

  Translation Text

  Analysis Restucturing

  Transfer The analysis begins with discovering basic element in SL, the process in which grammatical relationship and the meaning of words or its combination are analyzed. Then move to transfer the analyzed material into the mind of translator from SL to TL. Then, the last phase is the phase where the translator rewrites or re- expresses the material, which is readable and acceptable in terms of rule and style in TL.

  Furthermore, Nababan (1999:25) divides the process of translation in three major steps. 1) Analyzing the ST; the first step is analyzing the text. Analyze the linguistics and extra-linguistics elements in the text. Linguistics elements is the elements deals with language, while extra-linguistics is the elements beyond the language, such as the culture and the social context of the text. 2) Transfer the meaning ; the second step is transferring the meaning. In this step the translator has to find the equivalentof the ST. This process happens in mind (proses batin). It means that this process is in the abstract form. 3) Reconstruction ; the last step is reconstruction. After finding the equivalent of ST, we reconstruct it in the form of TL becoming TT. In this step, we must decide what style that suits best to the text and the readers.

2.3 Function of Translation

  According to Hartley (1982:186), “ Translating is a particular kind of communication and in all communication information is lost somewhere in the channel between sender and receiver. There are cultural and linguistic obstacles which may make the original messages or effects become difficult to achieve.” There are three essential elements to form a process of communication. The three elements are source, message and target. These three elements must be found in all communication activities. In this case, translation is an interlingual communication activity, that is the communication by using two different languages. Translation here is a written communication.

  Furthermore, (Allan Duff, 1989:5) states that, “Translation as the process of conveying message across linguistic and cultural barriers, is an eminently communicative activity”. Larson also says that the best translation is the one which communicates, as much as possible, the TL speakers understood the same meaning with the meaning that understood by the speakers of SL.

  As the process of communication, translation functions as the medium in conveying the message across linguistics and cultural barriers. It functions as a bridge to carry the messages or meanings from the SL to the TL. Translation has function as the medium between the SL and the TL.

  Newmark (1988:10) states “ Translation is now used as much to transmit knowledge and to create understanding between groups and nations, as to transmit culture”. From his statement, it is obvious that translation is also fulfills the demand for demand for many kinds of reading in the fields of education and science, the need of good translation can not be denied. The people need the scientific information from the countries who have high technology.

  Now, many countries complete to know up – to – date science, news, and technology from the progressive countries. By translation, foreign language barrier is no longer a problem to grasp the knowledge from other countries.

  Translation helps the people to understand better the influence of the one language on the other, and because translation involves contrast, it enable the people to explore the potential of both language; their strength and weaknesses (Duff, 1989:6).

2.4 Strategies of Translation

  Based on the diagram above, the people can now look at examples of strategies that are used by professional translators for dealing with various types of non – equivalence. In each example, SL word which represents a translation problem is underlined. The strategy used by the translator is highlighted bold in both the original translation and the back translated version. Only the strategies used for dealing with non – equivalence at word level will be commented on.

  According to Baker (1992), there are eight strategies that are used by professional translators. The eight strategies are :

  1. Translation using loan words in the source text.

  2. Translation by cultural substitution.

  3. Translation using a loan word or loan words plus explanation.

  4. Translation by paraphrase using related words.

  5. Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words.

  6. Translation by omission.

  7. Translation by illustration.

  8. Translation by a more general word (superordinate).

  In the “Memoirs of a Geisha” movie, the translator only uses the three strategies based on Baker’s Theory. The three strategies are (1). Translation using loan words in the source text, (2) Translation by cultural substitution and (3). Translation using a loan word or loan words plus explanation.

  (1). Translation using loan words in the source text.

  The using of loan words in the source text poses a special problem in translaion. Quite apart from the respective propositional meaning, loan words such as “au fait, chic, and alfresto” in English are often used for the prestige value, because it can add an air of sophistication to the text or its subject matter. This is often lost in translation because it is not always possible to find a loan word with the same meaning in TL. Example : ST : I certainly wasn’t born to the life of a Geisha.

  TT : Aku tidak dilahirkan dalam kehidupan seorang Geisha. (2). Translation by cultural substitution.

  This strategy involves a culture – specific items or expression with a target language item which does not have the same propositional meaning, but it is likely to have a similar impact on the target reader. The main advantage of using this strategy is that it gives the reader a concept with which the reader can identify, something fimiliar and appealing.

  On individual level, the translator’s decision to use this strategy will largerly depend on (a) how much licence is given to him / her by those who commission the translation and (b) the purpose of the translation. On more general level, the decision will also reflect, to some extent, the norms of translation prevailing in a given community. Linguistic communities vary in the extent to which they tolerate the strategies that involve significant departure from the propositional meaning of the text.

  In the “ Memoirs of a Geisha” , there are some words that used the cultural substitution. The translator uses this strategy because the word is Japanese cultural in communication that has the close relationship with others. Example : ST : He looked at me, that’s all oneisan. TT : Dia melihatku. Itu saja, kakak. (3). Translation using a loan word or loan words plus explanation.

  This strategy is particularly common in dealing with culture – specific items and modern concepts. Following the loan word with an explanation is very useful when the words in question are repeated several times in the text. Once explained, the loan word can be used on its own ; the reader can understand it and is not distracted by further lengthy explanations.

  In the “ Memoirs of a Geisha”, the translator uses this strategy in order to the reader can uderstand the meaning of the Japanese culture. The translator also uses this strategies for the words that have some meaning for a Geisha, so that the translation take the close meaning or right meaning, especially for a Geisha. Example : ST : The Baron is a very special man to me, my ‘ danna’. TT : Baron orang yang spesial bagiku, Danna–ku( pelindung).

2.5 Translation and Culture

  Bronislaw Malinowski was one of the first anthropologists to realize that language could only be understood with reference to culture: a context of culture. Moreover, Franz Boas (in Katan 73) added, "The form of language will be moulded by the state of that culture." Sapir on the other hand was convinced that not only importance of the social background but that future language studies would turn to a concept of culture.

  In different societies, people not only speak in different language and dialect, but they are also using the language in a different way. The difference reflects the different cultural values. This statement is in accordance with the definition given by Newmark (1988:94) "The way of life and its manifestation that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression" which implies that each language group have a culturally specific features.

  Nababan (1984: 50) states “… Bahasa, sebagai system komunikasi,

  

mempunyai makna hanya dalam kebudayaan yang menjadi wadahnya… mengerti

sesuatu bahasa tertentu memerlukan sedikit banyak pengertian tentang kebudayaan”

  (Language, as communication system, has meaning only in a culture in its place...understanding something specific language requires a little more cultural understanding). Therefore, any translator who wants to translate SL to TL must understand the culture of both SL and TL.

  If the translators take culture tobe a set of beliefs and practices which govern the life of society, language is a vehicle for the expression of those beliefs, for their transmission from generation to generation, and an instrument for finding out the world. Language is a key component of culture. It is the primary medium for transmitting culture.

  In the process of translating a text, a translator should translate the expressions from culture context. Translation from one language to another language cannot be done adequately without the knowledge of the two cultures a well as the two language cultures. Larson (1988:431) says, “ The translator must know the subject matter which he / she is translating. He / she must know the culture from which the message originally came as well as the culture for which it is being translated”.

  Translation and culture has a close relationship. If the translator wants to translate the text, the translator must know the concept of culture firstly. Larson (1988:431) says, “the translators must know the subject matter which he / she is translating. He / she must know the culture from which the message originally comes as well as the culture for which it is being translated”.

  Simply, culture is an important role in translation. The translation will be easier if the translator is support by an adequate knowledge about the culture from SL and TL. Finally, the translator must be aware in translating problems due to the differences of culture between SL and TL.

2.6 Categories of Cultural Terms

  Actually, there are many definitions of culture. The classic definition of culture was given by Taylor (In “The Translation of Agatha Christie’s The Mirror Crack’d to Dan Cermin pun Retak translated by Suwarni A.S:1997:25), an anthropologist. He stated that “ Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”. Culture issues from society in interaction. The product of group interaction is its culture. The concept of culture pattern provides a basic insight into the reason why group behavior is ordered and regular. Culture patterns are intangible and exist only in the minds and habits of human being.

  The differences between cultures become problems in the process of translation from one language into another that is divergent and unrelated. For example, how the translator translates ‘ Selamat Tujuh Bulan’ into English. Cultural disparities present the greates obstacle to translation. Translation fail occurs when it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text.

  The translator must be aware of the translation problems due to the cultural ‘gap’ or ‘distance’ between the SL and TL. In finding out the meaning of word, he / she cannot see simply by the word itself, but he / she has too see the cultural context of the language also.

  Newmark (1988) offers the cultural termscategories which may appear in translation, i.e, ecology; material culture; social culture; organisation; gesture and habits. He also tries to discuss the translation of cultural terms in the narrow senseas follows:

  1. Ecology – Animals, plants, local winds, mountains, plains, ice, etc.

  According to L. J Henderson (1950:138) (In “The Tranlation of Agatha Christie’s The Mirror Crack’d to Dan Cermin pun Retak translated by Suwarni A.S:1997:29) “ The environments of an organism consists of those characteristics of

  

the external world which have an appreciable effect upon it. The environment varies

from one locality to another for the same species and from one species to another in

the same locality.”

  Environments are different from one area to another. Every language has its own words to call or naming things or natural features in their surrondings. Cultural terms that are included in this category are words related with living organism and all the various aspects of the environtments in which they inside.

  Geographical features can be normally distinguished from other cultural terms in that are usually value – free, politically and commercially. Nevertheless, the diffusion depends on the importance of the country of origin as well as the degree of specificity.

  2. Material Culture (artefacts) – Food, clothes, housing, transport and communications.

  Material culture is clearly the product of man. Material culture is the externalization or physical manifestation of the interaction of human beings. Its includes all the artifacts or material objects. The artifact reflects the cultural ideas about the relation with the environment and with one another. The idea that artifacts are parts of a cultural system and are thus reflections of a society’s world view is the basis for the work of the anthropologist who tries to reconstruct past cultures from material remains.

  Perhaps, the most important relationship between a species and its environment is the process of food acquisition. How a society gets its food has important ramifications for all other aspects of its culture.

  Food is for many the most sensitive and important expression of national culture; food terms are subject to the widest variety of translation procedures. Clothes as cultural terms may be sufficiently explained to TL general readers if the generic noun or classifier is added : e.g. ‘shintigin trousers’ or ‘basque skirt’, if the particular is of no interest, the generic word can simply replace it. However, it has to borne in mind that the function of the generic clothes terms is approximately constant, indicating the part of the body that is covered, but the description varies depending on climate and material used.

  Clothes as cultural terms may be sufficiently explained for TL general readers if the generic noun or classifier is added. For national customers, they are kept as the original words e.g., sari, kimono, yulaka, kebaya, kaftan, and jubbah. However, it has to be borne in mind that the function of the generic clothes terms is approximately constant, indicating the part of the body that is covered, but the description varies depending on climate and material used. Transport is dominated by American. And the car, a sacred symbol in many countries of sacred private property.

3. Social culture – work and leisure.

  Man cannot exist in isolation. We live in society and make interaction. Society exists in and through social interaction, a human beings react to others and in turn are influenced by them. Social interaction is thus reciprocal and each member governs his behavior in terms of the expectations of others. Each society has its own way to establish social interaction, for example in greeting someone, a person from the different society (specially with different language) has different expressions from other societies although the perpose is the same.

  Social culture is the product of social interaction. The groups of people produce customs, ideas, belief, knowledge, attitudes, values, and behavior patterns (acts) that are handed down from generation to generation. Certain society has certain forms of daily activity, from eating and drinking to propitiating the supranatural powers. In considering social culture one has to distinguish between denotative and connotative problems to translation.

4. Social Organisations, customs, ideas – Political, social, legal, religious, artistic.

  The political and social life of a country is reflected in its institutional terms. Where the title of a lead of state or the name of a parliament are transparent, they are easily translated, i.e, President, Prime Minister, and King, Senate. Where the name of a parliament is not readily translatable, i.e, Bundenstag (German Federal Parliament) is often transferred for an educated readership and glossed to a general readership.

  When a public body has a transparent name, the translation depends on the setting. In official document and in serious publication such as textbooks, the title is transferred and where appropiate, literally translated. Informally, it could be translated by a cultural equivalent, e.g. The French Electricity Board or The Postal

  Service.

5. Gestures and Habit (often desribed in ‘ non – cultural’ language).

  Social interaction is a continuous and reciprocal series of contacts between two or more socialized human beings. These contacts may be physical in the sense that each person does something physically to the other; more often they are simbolic, in the sense that each person exchanges symbolic meanings with the other, in the form of language or other significant gestures. When two person interact, they exchanges meaningful gestures – whether smile, signs, frowns, or yawns, and sometimes a gesture can become a habit.

  For ‘ gesture and habits’ there is a distinction between description and fuction which can be made where necessary in ambiguous cases ; thus, if people smile a little when someone dies, do a slow hand – clap to express a warning appreciation, give a thumbs – up to signal OK, all of which occur in some cultures and not in others.

  Many societies in different countries have their own way to express their feelings and ideas through gestures. For example in India, people shake their head oftenly while they are speaking, but Indonesian people won’t do that because it will bring negative result to hearer. In certain society, kissing the finger tips could be mean to greet ot to praise, and a slow hand clap to express warm appreciation, etc. All of these occur in some cultures and not in others.

  Finally, from the explanations above, the writer could comprehend that there are five cultural categories in the translation. The cultural categories can help the writer to identify the cultural terms in the subtitling of “Memoirs of a Geisha” movie. Beside that, the cultural categories also help the students who want to study about translation and the student can get the explanation about the cultural categories based on Newmark’s Theory.