Reconstructing Urban Labyrinths Urban Labyrinths
Reconstructing Urban Labyrinths
EURAU’12
ABSTRACT: Whilst in literature and common language the labyrinthine and
the maze-like are synonymous, the use of these ancient terms in
contemporary urbanism is commonly misunderstood. Based on an
appreciation of understandings embedded in the cultural device-symbol-path
of the labyrinth, this paper re-examines Space-Syntaxic presumptions about
modern cities.
A novel model is outlined and experimental evidence provided to illustrate
how distinct spatial movements relate to dialogues between desire-sets in an
ecological system. It is suggested that this correct understanding of the
ancient relationship between labyrinths and city cultures can be extended to
provide re-interpretations of urban conditions.
During the paper, the author provides insights as to how this reconstruction
of a collective cultural memory is being utilized in three separate fields of
contemporary urbanism. Outlines are given on its influencing of architectural
design, ongoing archaeological analysis of the palace-settlements of Minoan
Crete and explorations in full-scale interactive experimental installations.
KEYWORDS: labyrinths, mazes, interaction, behaviours, space syntax, Olympics
Sam McElhinney
Bartlett School of Architecture, University College London
Wates House, 22 Gordon Street
London, WC1H 0QB
sam@sammcelhinney.com
1. Introduction
Getting from 'A' to 'B' often preoccupies the city 'user'. This occurs at many rates
and modes, the most embodied of which is walking. Walking offers the commonest
urban experience and so how we choose to walk between points is a key concern of
many urban designers.
In designing, we mediate a conversation between ourselves as designer and as
observer. [Glanville, 1999] A model of 'self' is used as an internal model of a 'user'
within a hypothetical design, allowing testing and iteration of ideas [Gage, 2007a].
Essentially designers project what might delight them onto a future observer and
trust that this person will construct similar understandings and delight from the
completed system. [Gage, 2006]
This results in work that invariably reflects the designers' own tastes; an ego driven
process which is often regarded as a problematic. Urban designers in particular
have attempted to progress from this by using generic 'user-constructs'. The 'Space
Syntax' grouping, headed by Bill Hillier at University College London (UCL), are
recognised as being successful at this. As with many Urban designers, they are
fascinated by how pedestrians get from 'A to B'; their inter-connectivity.
Key papers from Space Syntax have quantified their approach [Turner et al., 2005]
and set out how it informs a species of 'point isovist' agents. [Penn and Turner,
2002] These have been employed to analyse movement at building and urban
scales [Turner and Penn, 2007] and also in generative morphological simulations.
[Turner and Penn, 2004] This work does hold merit; but a later critique will point
out some limitations.
2. The Labyrinth and the Maze
Common literature regularly uses the terms 'labyrinthine' and 'maze' in an
interchangeable manner. Their originally separate meanings have long been blurred
in prose and lyrics, perhaps because this distinction was a spatial, symbolic one,
usually inconsequential to a reader.
A misunderstanding arises when this literal crossover recycles to describe urban
networks.
While enjoying the relaxing cruise, you’ll notice how the dark
buildings of the city seem to be stacked on top of one another
along narrow, labyrinthine streets. [Visit Portugal, 2012]
It is common to find commentary of this ilk; urbanists use it too. Perhaps they do
not want to write that they became disorientated by a complex city grain. They
apply a suggestive term, but what they really mean is that they found themselves
lost in a maze.
A labyrinth is not a maze. Labyrinths offer understandings of intimate, bodily space
and the formation, occupancy and inter-connectivities of that around it. [Kern,
2000] They are encountered as complete, coherent symbols in which space is
wound around upon itself. This construct is ancient and its meanings obscured, but
clear spatial distinctions illuminate these.
A path system can be regarded as multicursal: a network of disorienting
interconnecting routes and choices. It may contain multiple branches and dead
ends that confuse. This is a maze.
Alternatively, a known path is resolved as a single, monocursal route. Once
embarked upon, this may fold, twist and turn, but will trend towards and ultimately
reach a destination; this is a labyrinth.
A pedestrian walking these two topologies behaves in very different ways.
2.1. Two Users
The labyrinth-user accepts and internalises a constant, known route, presented
symbolically. Whilst following this, they are free to engage in abstract, introvert
reflection, ‘wandering’ in their mind. Given a predetermined external bodily path,
the labyrinth walker explores internal mental paths.
Despite apparently being wholly predictable (walking a set path), this occupant may
develop innovative internal thoughts. These are expressed in unanticipated
behaviours; wilfulness, even divergence from the ‘thinking-route’ of the labyrinth.
In a labyrinth, movement expresses an internalised, abstracted
thought process.
Conversely, a maze-user has no solution. They must 'find their way' by direct
dialogue with their surroundings [Gibson, 1979 & Brooks, 1999]. A continual
assessment of environmental novelty primes simple decision-making mechanisms;
response to stimuli or pre-learnt social constructs. 'Dead ends' are avoided, whilst
longer vistas are explored. The commonality of these responses makes movement
predictable.
Over time, successful movement strategies assemble to form a cogent mapping of
the environment. This provides a ‘labyrinthine path’ solution, but prior to this,
internal reasoning with a hypothetical model of provides little benefit to a real-time
system in a real world ‘maze’.
In a maze, movement expresses an externalised, embodied
thought process.
2.2. Extrapolation
We can extend this model of two users. All urbanism could be considered as
labyrinth or maze and our 'user-constructs' could be modes of occupancy. This
classification is not a simple division; it is not a model of absolutes. The two polar
spatial understandings are coincident, overlapping and modulating as the user’s
comprehension and the environment change. What have is a novel model for
interpreting urban realms.
Unexplored cities and street-scapes appear maze-like. Their occupants seek delight
as in a maze; through a gradual construction of understanding. This is a threading
together of known familiarities - in architecture these include arcades, stairways or
rooms, in urban space, avenues, bridges and squares. These elements are
augmented by pre-learnt social constructs; they are understood, labyrinthine
configurations which, in recognition, allow reflection.
Around these momentary events, emotive memories conglomerate, allowing a
patina of experiences to signpost paths through the city. Orientation and direction
become less relevant than accumulative exploration; establishing an intense,
immersive relationship between the user and the urban landscape. Knowledge of a
network of landmarks is continually recombined both in the mind and in the act of
walking to create infinite varieties of labyrinth pathways.
In this way, the route from 'A to B' in the city is rarely an optimised, direct one. It
meanders and is circuitous. It perhaps includes 'C', 'D' or 'Z' providing constant
opportunity for novelty and delight. Its known, labyrinthine nature allows
introspective, wandering moments; but the activity of most urban environments
retains a degree of maze. Thus we are often predictable; the unexpected stimuli
through which we move causing reversion to maze-navigating behaviours.
The premise is that all space is found, experienced and inhabited in a state of
‘switching’ flux between the diametrically opposed topologies of maze and
labyrinth. This offers insights into how urban public space might evoke continual
delight in the user.
Perhaps in navigating the complex built environment we constantly perceive
different spatialities and seek novelty (and thus delight) by switching between
modes of understanding and movement. Successful cities afford this modulating
exploration; this flowing process has not yet been examined in urbanism.
2.3. The In-between Space
We should therefore consider what it means for users to engage a path that
alternates from a labyrinth into a maze (or vice-versa). Diagrammatically this
switch is not between typologies (Nicolson, [2005] already offers excellent
taxonomic work in this area), but from route to anti-route, topologically fully or
partially collapsing the labyrinth and creating mazes.
Such an actively ambiguous space poses questions. How might it be constructed?
What are the experiential ramifications of inhabiting it? Might such an environment
in some way 'learn' and react to occupancy? What observational insights could
these interactions provide?
3. Maze-Agent Ecologies
3.1. Critiquing Space Syntax
Alasdair Turner’s Space Syntax simulations contain two elements; direct perception
agents that assess a visual field to determine movement and an environment that
observes and reconfigures. [Turner and Penn, 2004]
In the simulations, spatial plans are pre-assessed and their 'inter-visibility' data
(point-isovist information) is stored in a ‘look-up table’. This ‘exosomatic visual
architecture’ provides agents with an external ability to infer spatial relationships.
[Penn and Turner, 2002] Each agent samples this table, choosing a random point
from their field of view. They walk toward this for a number of steps before
repeating the choice. This creates ‘wandering’; forward locations tend to be chosen,
and so the agent traverses space.
A limitation of this work lies in its pre-computation. Turner's agents only see that
which is stored in the lookup table. Environmental change requires a new intervisibility analysis; without this the agents’ ‘vision’ would be inaccurate. Spatial
modulation is thus carried out on a turn-based method and relies on a genetic
algorithm; many thousands of generations are required to produce significant
results. Inhabiting agents are really passive explorers of a static environment;
experiencing none of the activity of the real world.
If we consider the Space Syntax approach in terms of the proposed bi-polar user
construct, Turner's agents are solely 'maze users'. They make simple depth
assessments and have no capacity to build labyrinthine understandings. The intervisibility analysis upon which they rely optimises possible routes; although agents
'wander' this occurs through randomisation of this optimal routing rather than from
recognition of familiar spatial elements. Agent paths from 'A to B' are reductionist;
they do not aspire to the complex engagements of city user.
This approach emphasises direct perception above individual desires and behaviour
traits. Accumulative averages make this effective when considering urban
morphologies over extended times, but it cannot approximate the momentary
richness apparent in cities. An agent with desires, capable of autonomously
resolving space, could react behaviourally in real-time, allowing its environment to
be continually active. Such fluctuation may produce intriguing ecologies without
requiring genetic iterations and so might better highlight emergent urban orders.
3.2. An Alternative System
An in-silico system was developed using the open source coding language,
‘Processing’. This had the expressed aims of:
- showing that a direct perception agent can autonomously resolve spatial
interrelationships.
- exploring how an environment might react in real-time to agent actions;
and showing that this ecology might not require genetic algorithms to
resolve toward a structure that reflects ‘learning’ about its occupancy.
- determining how desire interplay might affect agent or maze-user
movements.
- investigating what movement patterns from such an ecology might depict
and if it generates recognisable architectural types.
3.3. Dialogues
The experimental context consisted of numerous 'doors' in a triangular grid forming
a 'maze matrix'. Each was capable of being closed, primed or open. Using a
cascade algorithm, doors were opened sequentially, establishing routes through the
maze. As these twisted and turned differing spatialities were created; some were
'roomlike' whilst others formed 'corridors'.
The matrix had an inherent goal; desiring to exist in a ‘resolved’ state, with
complete, stable path structures. It remained like this unless disturbed by the
opening of a new door; at which point the cascade restarted.
An agent was designed, utilising 'depth vectors' to autonomously assess
surrounding space. These vectors were arrayed to mimic human vision and a
comparative system allowed them to impart understanding of the type of spatiality
('room' or 'corridor') occupied. Each agent was given desires which compelled it to
seek or attempt to construct particular spatial types by opening doors. This in turn
triggered the maze to seek a new stable path configurations.
Whilst successfully occupying or unsuccessfully searching for a particular spatiality,
the agent became 'bored' or 'frustrated' and altered its goals respectively. This
produced a complex of dialogues between the desires of the agent (to explore, or
to accept the current configuration) and of the environment (attempting to form
coherent routes) that could be read in the agent trails. Study of these allowed
categorisation of distinct movement typologies. (Figs. 1-5)
Fig.1: trans-type movement: sustained
and direct path seeking and following.
Each typology reflects a specific modulation of the internal desires of individual
agents; expressing these outwardly as distinctive 'dances', patterns that attempt to
satisfy spatial goals. Lacking the capacity for internal cognition, the agents display
an external 'bodily' reasoning in order to manipulate and navigate the maze.
Fig.2: interrupted trans-type movement:
path seeking/following punctuated with
room seeking/occupancy.
Fig.3:
meander
movement:
room
seeking desires outweigh path seeking;
an exploratory path evolves.
Fig.4: orbital movement: the two desire
sets are equally weighted.
Fig.5: complex knot movement: allowing
continual variation of desires results in
hybrid combinations and path linkages.
Larger matrices increase scope for this.
Some of these movements are directly equitable to forms long established as
labyrinthine elements; the meander and orbit are particularly common. The
structure of a labyrinth is being formed from within a maze as it accommodates
exploratory desires. As with the urban explorer, we find an intimate linking of the
wanderings of the mind, the constraints of the body and the path of the labyrinth.
[Nicholson, 2005]
3.4. Ecological Morphologies
A second experiment explored emergence. Each door was given abilities to record
agent proximities. This data influenced which doors were opened in the resolving
cascade. The simplest choice algorithm was random but later ones chose doors:
- to predict and satisfy agent penetration of the matrix (more popular doors)
- to predict and frustrate agent penetration of the matrix (less popular doors)
Depicting doors that were closed for 70% or more of the experiment illustrated
which approximated to walls. A second recording marked each agent route. After
just thirty agent visits emergent ‘tracks’ (common paths) and ‘screens’ (structures
of closed doors) could be observed; comparing favourably to the several thousand
generations required by Space Syntax simulations. (Figs. 6-8)
Fig.6 (above): Random door opening
produced concentric rings, akin to
courtyard cloisters. Agent 'exploration
urges' were expressed by crossing rings.
Fig.8 (right): Frustration formed lateral
structures; forcing agents to travel
sideways. High activity near the
entrance made this marked here,
creating 'vestibule' spaces. In later
generations the screens behind here
dissolved into single panels; creating
central areas of exploration.
Fig.7 (above): Satisfaction of agent door
choice produced diagonal structures,
promoting access into the matrix.
Initially this benefited exploration; but in
later generations these screens became
permanent, dictating movement.
Each ecology went through several generational phases. This accumulation and
change depicts the evolution of a dialogic accord between the two systems. The
maze developed understandings of how it was being understood; this ‘learning’ was
expressed in the ‘screen’ constructions. Gradually the environment became
effective at influencing occupancy to suit its desires.
Starting from a maze, this system has demonstrated the folding of space into
labyrinthine (or recognisable) orders. It hints how common architectural and urban
features and compositions may have accumulated from interactions of emotive and
desire based occupancy. This provides an experimental basis for a novel
understanding of urban order.
4. Current Applications
4.1. The Cretan Palace Complex
Since the initial digital experiments the agent genus has been entirely re-coded. It
now achieves a greater spatial resolution and can be implemented in high numbers.
Further optimisations allow it to operate successfully within more complex active
architectural plans. A collaboration between the author and Quentin Letesson
[Letesson, 2009] is deploying these agents within reconstructed plans of the
ancient Cretan Palaces of Malia, Phaistos and Zakros.
To date this has demonstrated that the approach can provide similar results to
Space Syntax including agent tracks and an inter-visibility plan outputs. It can also
produce isovist pathway mappings that record spatial comprehension at key
behavioural switches. (Fig. 9)
Fig.9 (left):
Agent analysis of
Zakros Palace
Further behavioural layers are now being added to the agent genus. Future
experiments will seek common behaviour patterns within the palace complexes for
comparison to established archaeological analysis. A degree of correlation is
expected to identify labyrinthine orders within these proto-urban constructions.
Particular focus is being given to areas of 'polythyra', pier and door partitions which
were opened or closed depending on spatial occupation; a device which strongly
emulates the switching spaces experimentally identified previously.
4.2. Experimental Architectures
The themes outlined in this paper were first implemented in built form in the
author's own 'Switching Labyrinth' installation. This was constructed in a warehouse
near Euston Station, London, in June 2009, providing a framework for two weeks of
experimental occupation.
Consisting of 250 metres of curtains hung from a suspended space-frame, the
installation provided pathways around two small 'room' spaces. As occupants
explored these, an algorithm observed their progress and periodically shifted
curtains. This collapsed the extant labyrinth structure and produced fragmentary,
'maze-like' arrangements; these in turn coalesced into novel labyrinthine routes
based upon user movement.
The author now tutors graduate students at UCL's Bartlett School of Architecture
who are developing full scale interactive installations. All of these explore notions of
switching space and behaviour and how they might apply to create novel, delightful
architectures.
4.3. Olympic Wayfinding
2012's Olympic Games centred around Stratford Park, in East London. In the four
years prior to the Games, this was 'regenerated' from industrial wastelands to
create a new urban public space with extensive gardens, bridges and plazas. With
four major venues within the park, creation of a coherent pedestrian wayfinding
strategy was a paramount design issue.
Fig.10: Olympic Wayfinding, Zone Beacon, rotational views.
Fig.11: Olympic Wayfinding, Main Beacon, rotational views.
Within professional practice, the author acted as Architect for the design and
delivery of a family of thirteen wayfinding structures across the Olympic Park; six
7m high 'zone beacons', five 14m high 'main beacons' and two 12m high, 32m wide
entrance gantries. (Figs 10-12) Rather than simply highlighting optimal routes,
these high profile structures were detailed to echo ancient and familiar architectural
features (such as masonry quoining); facilitating them to be recognised and
operate more fully as a chain of landmarks for the passerby's mental reconstruction of labyrinth paths across the landscape.
Fig.12: Olympic Wayfinding, Entrance Gantry.
5. Reconstructing the Labyrinth
Theseus, the hero of Greek legend, is known for navigating the Minoan Labyrinth
and slaying the Minotaur. Less well known is how, on his return to Greece, he
became a prototypic urban designer, recognised for the first synoecism (dwelling
together or civil union) of the polis of Athens. A conurbation of small towns was
threaded into a monocursal entity; at the very beginnings of public urban culture
lies a hidden labyrinth order.
We no longer recognise this order in the contextualisation of civil spaces of our
cities. If we did, it would provide an innovative emotive and behavioural realignment of the syntaxes that we currently apply in readings of urban complexes.
The works described in this paper are small interventions which have attempted to
establish evidence for and design using this approach.
Reconstruction of an understanding of continuous labyrinthine systems within
contemporary city complexes offers potential alternative approaches to their
shaping and occupation. Doing this would break down current reductionist readings
of navigation ‘from A to B’ within the city suggest innovative urban orders which
have at their heart multi-various, rich, active interpretations of public realm.
6. Acknowledgements
All images are copyright the Author.
Thanks go to my colleagues at Surface Architects, as well as the London Organising
Committee for the Olympic Games. Professor Stephen Gage of UCL has, as ever,
been supportive.
Final thanks go to Elizabeth Upham, for her patience.
7. Bibliography
[Brooks, 1999] Rodney A. Brooks, Cambrian Intelligence: the early history of the new
AI, (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999)
[Gage, 2006] Stephen Gage, ‘The Wonder of Trivial Machines’, Systems Research and
Behavioural Science, vol.23 (2006) pp.771-8
[Gage, 2007a] Stephen Gage, ‘How to design a black and white box’, Kybernetes,
vol.36 no.9/10 (2007) pp.1329-39
[Gage, 2007b] Stephen Gage, ‘Constructing the User’, Systems Research and
Behavioural Science, vol.24 (2007) pp.313-22
[Gibson, 1979] James J. Gibson, The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception,
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1979)
[Glanville, 1999] Ranulph Glanville, ‘Re-searching Design and Designing Research',
MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1999)
[Kern, 2000] Hermann Kern, Through the Labyrinth: Designs and Meanings over
5,000 Years, (New York: Prestel, 2000)
[Letesson, 2009] Quentin Letesson, Du phénotype au génotype: analyse de la
syntaxe spatiale en architecture minoenne, (Louvain-la-Neuve, 2009)
[Nicholson, 2005] Ben Nicholson, ‘Chapter V: Labyrinths of Form and Matter’, Horror
Vacuii, (unpublished, personal correspondence, dated 9 March 2005)
[Penn and Turner, 2002] Alan Penn and Alasdair Turner, ‘Space Syntax Based Agent
Simulation’, in Michael Schreckenberg and Som Deo Sharma (eds.) Pedestrian and
Evacuation Dynamics (Berlin: Springer, 2002) pp.99-114
[Turner et al., 2005] Alasdair Turner, Alan Penn and Bill Hillier, ‘An algorithmic
definition of the axial map’ Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, vol.32
(2005) pp.425-444
[Turner and Penn, 2007] Alasdair Turner and Alan Penn ‘Evolving direct perception
models of human behavior in building systems’ in N. Waldau, P. Gattermann, H.
Knoflacher, and M. Schrekenberg, (eds.) Pedestrian and Evacuation Dynamics
(Berlin: Springer, 2007) pp.411-22
[Turner and Penn, 2004] Alasdair Turner and Alan Penn, ‘An Ecological Approach to
Generative Design’, Design Computing and Design, (2004) pp.259-274
[Visit Portugal, 2012] www.visitportugal.com/BoatTripsinPorto (last accessed 04/06/2012)
8. Biography
Sam McElhinney is an Architect who studied at Cambridge University and the Bartlett,
University College London. On graduation from UCL he won the Ambrose Poynter
Prize for his thesis 'Labyrinths, Mazes and the Spaces Inbetween' and in 2010 he won
‘Best Paper’ at the European Meeting of Cybernetics and Systems Research, Vienna.
Since 2005 Sam has been a key member of Surface, an award winning design
practice. He is currently lead Architect for Surface's most high profile built project
yet, a series of Wayfinding Structures for the 2012 Olympic Games.
Sam tutors Architecture at Canterbury and UCL universities and has lectured at
Cambridge University and at the MAXXI Centre in Rome.
EURAU’12
ABSTRACT: Whilst in literature and common language the labyrinthine and
the maze-like are synonymous, the use of these ancient terms in
contemporary urbanism is commonly misunderstood. Based on an
appreciation of understandings embedded in the cultural device-symbol-path
of the labyrinth, this paper re-examines Space-Syntaxic presumptions about
modern cities.
A novel model is outlined and experimental evidence provided to illustrate
how distinct spatial movements relate to dialogues between desire-sets in an
ecological system. It is suggested that this correct understanding of the
ancient relationship between labyrinths and city cultures can be extended to
provide re-interpretations of urban conditions.
During the paper, the author provides insights as to how this reconstruction
of a collective cultural memory is being utilized in three separate fields of
contemporary urbanism. Outlines are given on its influencing of architectural
design, ongoing archaeological analysis of the palace-settlements of Minoan
Crete and explorations in full-scale interactive experimental installations.
KEYWORDS: labyrinths, mazes, interaction, behaviours, space syntax, Olympics
Sam McElhinney
Bartlett School of Architecture, University College London
Wates House, 22 Gordon Street
London, WC1H 0QB
sam@sammcelhinney.com
1. Introduction
Getting from 'A' to 'B' often preoccupies the city 'user'. This occurs at many rates
and modes, the most embodied of which is walking. Walking offers the commonest
urban experience and so how we choose to walk between points is a key concern of
many urban designers.
In designing, we mediate a conversation between ourselves as designer and as
observer. [Glanville, 1999] A model of 'self' is used as an internal model of a 'user'
within a hypothetical design, allowing testing and iteration of ideas [Gage, 2007a].
Essentially designers project what might delight them onto a future observer and
trust that this person will construct similar understandings and delight from the
completed system. [Gage, 2006]
This results in work that invariably reflects the designers' own tastes; an ego driven
process which is often regarded as a problematic. Urban designers in particular
have attempted to progress from this by using generic 'user-constructs'. The 'Space
Syntax' grouping, headed by Bill Hillier at University College London (UCL), are
recognised as being successful at this. As with many Urban designers, they are
fascinated by how pedestrians get from 'A to B'; their inter-connectivity.
Key papers from Space Syntax have quantified their approach [Turner et al., 2005]
and set out how it informs a species of 'point isovist' agents. [Penn and Turner,
2002] These have been employed to analyse movement at building and urban
scales [Turner and Penn, 2007] and also in generative morphological simulations.
[Turner and Penn, 2004] This work does hold merit; but a later critique will point
out some limitations.
2. The Labyrinth and the Maze
Common literature regularly uses the terms 'labyrinthine' and 'maze' in an
interchangeable manner. Their originally separate meanings have long been blurred
in prose and lyrics, perhaps because this distinction was a spatial, symbolic one,
usually inconsequential to a reader.
A misunderstanding arises when this literal crossover recycles to describe urban
networks.
While enjoying the relaxing cruise, you’ll notice how the dark
buildings of the city seem to be stacked on top of one another
along narrow, labyrinthine streets. [Visit Portugal, 2012]
It is common to find commentary of this ilk; urbanists use it too. Perhaps they do
not want to write that they became disorientated by a complex city grain. They
apply a suggestive term, but what they really mean is that they found themselves
lost in a maze.
A labyrinth is not a maze. Labyrinths offer understandings of intimate, bodily space
and the formation, occupancy and inter-connectivities of that around it. [Kern,
2000] They are encountered as complete, coherent symbols in which space is
wound around upon itself. This construct is ancient and its meanings obscured, but
clear spatial distinctions illuminate these.
A path system can be regarded as multicursal: a network of disorienting
interconnecting routes and choices. It may contain multiple branches and dead
ends that confuse. This is a maze.
Alternatively, a known path is resolved as a single, monocursal route. Once
embarked upon, this may fold, twist and turn, but will trend towards and ultimately
reach a destination; this is a labyrinth.
A pedestrian walking these two topologies behaves in very different ways.
2.1. Two Users
The labyrinth-user accepts and internalises a constant, known route, presented
symbolically. Whilst following this, they are free to engage in abstract, introvert
reflection, ‘wandering’ in their mind. Given a predetermined external bodily path,
the labyrinth walker explores internal mental paths.
Despite apparently being wholly predictable (walking a set path), this occupant may
develop innovative internal thoughts. These are expressed in unanticipated
behaviours; wilfulness, even divergence from the ‘thinking-route’ of the labyrinth.
In a labyrinth, movement expresses an internalised, abstracted
thought process.
Conversely, a maze-user has no solution. They must 'find their way' by direct
dialogue with their surroundings [Gibson, 1979 & Brooks, 1999]. A continual
assessment of environmental novelty primes simple decision-making mechanisms;
response to stimuli or pre-learnt social constructs. 'Dead ends' are avoided, whilst
longer vistas are explored. The commonality of these responses makes movement
predictable.
Over time, successful movement strategies assemble to form a cogent mapping of
the environment. This provides a ‘labyrinthine path’ solution, but prior to this,
internal reasoning with a hypothetical model of provides little benefit to a real-time
system in a real world ‘maze’.
In a maze, movement expresses an externalised, embodied
thought process.
2.2. Extrapolation
We can extend this model of two users. All urbanism could be considered as
labyrinth or maze and our 'user-constructs' could be modes of occupancy. This
classification is not a simple division; it is not a model of absolutes. The two polar
spatial understandings are coincident, overlapping and modulating as the user’s
comprehension and the environment change. What have is a novel model for
interpreting urban realms.
Unexplored cities and street-scapes appear maze-like. Their occupants seek delight
as in a maze; through a gradual construction of understanding. This is a threading
together of known familiarities - in architecture these include arcades, stairways or
rooms, in urban space, avenues, bridges and squares. These elements are
augmented by pre-learnt social constructs; they are understood, labyrinthine
configurations which, in recognition, allow reflection.
Around these momentary events, emotive memories conglomerate, allowing a
patina of experiences to signpost paths through the city. Orientation and direction
become less relevant than accumulative exploration; establishing an intense,
immersive relationship between the user and the urban landscape. Knowledge of a
network of landmarks is continually recombined both in the mind and in the act of
walking to create infinite varieties of labyrinth pathways.
In this way, the route from 'A to B' in the city is rarely an optimised, direct one. It
meanders and is circuitous. It perhaps includes 'C', 'D' or 'Z' providing constant
opportunity for novelty and delight. Its known, labyrinthine nature allows
introspective, wandering moments; but the activity of most urban environments
retains a degree of maze. Thus we are often predictable; the unexpected stimuli
through which we move causing reversion to maze-navigating behaviours.
The premise is that all space is found, experienced and inhabited in a state of
‘switching’ flux between the diametrically opposed topologies of maze and
labyrinth. This offers insights into how urban public space might evoke continual
delight in the user.
Perhaps in navigating the complex built environment we constantly perceive
different spatialities and seek novelty (and thus delight) by switching between
modes of understanding and movement. Successful cities afford this modulating
exploration; this flowing process has not yet been examined in urbanism.
2.3. The In-between Space
We should therefore consider what it means for users to engage a path that
alternates from a labyrinth into a maze (or vice-versa). Diagrammatically this
switch is not between typologies (Nicolson, [2005] already offers excellent
taxonomic work in this area), but from route to anti-route, topologically fully or
partially collapsing the labyrinth and creating mazes.
Such an actively ambiguous space poses questions. How might it be constructed?
What are the experiential ramifications of inhabiting it? Might such an environment
in some way 'learn' and react to occupancy? What observational insights could
these interactions provide?
3. Maze-Agent Ecologies
3.1. Critiquing Space Syntax
Alasdair Turner’s Space Syntax simulations contain two elements; direct perception
agents that assess a visual field to determine movement and an environment that
observes and reconfigures. [Turner and Penn, 2004]
In the simulations, spatial plans are pre-assessed and their 'inter-visibility' data
(point-isovist information) is stored in a ‘look-up table’. This ‘exosomatic visual
architecture’ provides agents with an external ability to infer spatial relationships.
[Penn and Turner, 2002] Each agent samples this table, choosing a random point
from their field of view. They walk toward this for a number of steps before
repeating the choice. This creates ‘wandering’; forward locations tend to be chosen,
and so the agent traverses space.
A limitation of this work lies in its pre-computation. Turner's agents only see that
which is stored in the lookup table. Environmental change requires a new intervisibility analysis; without this the agents’ ‘vision’ would be inaccurate. Spatial
modulation is thus carried out on a turn-based method and relies on a genetic
algorithm; many thousands of generations are required to produce significant
results. Inhabiting agents are really passive explorers of a static environment;
experiencing none of the activity of the real world.
If we consider the Space Syntax approach in terms of the proposed bi-polar user
construct, Turner's agents are solely 'maze users'. They make simple depth
assessments and have no capacity to build labyrinthine understandings. The intervisibility analysis upon which they rely optimises possible routes; although agents
'wander' this occurs through randomisation of this optimal routing rather than from
recognition of familiar spatial elements. Agent paths from 'A to B' are reductionist;
they do not aspire to the complex engagements of city user.
This approach emphasises direct perception above individual desires and behaviour
traits. Accumulative averages make this effective when considering urban
morphologies over extended times, but it cannot approximate the momentary
richness apparent in cities. An agent with desires, capable of autonomously
resolving space, could react behaviourally in real-time, allowing its environment to
be continually active. Such fluctuation may produce intriguing ecologies without
requiring genetic iterations and so might better highlight emergent urban orders.
3.2. An Alternative System
An in-silico system was developed using the open source coding language,
‘Processing’. This had the expressed aims of:
- showing that a direct perception agent can autonomously resolve spatial
interrelationships.
- exploring how an environment might react in real-time to agent actions;
and showing that this ecology might not require genetic algorithms to
resolve toward a structure that reflects ‘learning’ about its occupancy.
- determining how desire interplay might affect agent or maze-user
movements.
- investigating what movement patterns from such an ecology might depict
and if it generates recognisable architectural types.
3.3. Dialogues
The experimental context consisted of numerous 'doors' in a triangular grid forming
a 'maze matrix'. Each was capable of being closed, primed or open. Using a
cascade algorithm, doors were opened sequentially, establishing routes through the
maze. As these twisted and turned differing spatialities were created; some were
'roomlike' whilst others formed 'corridors'.
The matrix had an inherent goal; desiring to exist in a ‘resolved’ state, with
complete, stable path structures. It remained like this unless disturbed by the
opening of a new door; at which point the cascade restarted.
An agent was designed, utilising 'depth vectors' to autonomously assess
surrounding space. These vectors were arrayed to mimic human vision and a
comparative system allowed them to impart understanding of the type of spatiality
('room' or 'corridor') occupied. Each agent was given desires which compelled it to
seek or attempt to construct particular spatial types by opening doors. This in turn
triggered the maze to seek a new stable path configurations.
Whilst successfully occupying or unsuccessfully searching for a particular spatiality,
the agent became 'bored' or 'frustrated' and altered its goals respectively. This
produced a complex of dialogues between the desires of the agent (to explore, or
to accept the current configuration) and of the environment (attempting to form
coherent routes) that could be read in the agent trails. Study of these allowed
categorisation of distinct movement typologies. (Figs. 1-5)
Fig.1: trans-type movement: sustained
and direct path seeking and following.
Each typology reflects a specific modulation of the internal desires of individual
agents; expressing these outwardly as distinctive 'dances', patterns that attempt to
satisfy spatial goals. Lacking the capacity for internal cognition, the agents display
an external 'bodily' reasoning in order to manipulate and navigate the maze.
Fig.2: interrupted trans-type movement:
path seeking/following punctuated with
room seeking/occupancy.
Fig.3:
meander
movement:
room
seeking desires outweigh path seeking;
an exploratory path evolves.
Fig.4: orbital movement: the two desire
sets are equally weighted.
Fig.5: complex knot movement: allowing
continual variation of desires results in
hybrid combinations and path linkages.
Larger matrices increase scope for this.
Some of these movements are directly equitable to forms long established as
labyrinthine elements; the meander and orbit are particularly common. The
structure of a labyrinth is being formed from within a maze as it accommodates
exploratory desires. As with the urban explorer, we find an intimate linking of the
wanderings of the mind, the constraints of the body and the path of the labyrinth.
[Nicholson, 2005]
3.4. Ecological Morphologies
A second experiment explored emergence. Each door was given abilities to record
agent proximities. This data influenced which doors were opened in the resolving
cascade. The simplest choice algorithm was random but later ones chose doors:
- to predict and satisfy agent penetration of the matrix (more popular doors)
- to predict and frustrate agent penetration of the matrix (less popular doors)
Depicting doors that were closed for 70% or more of the experiment illustrated
which approximated to walls. A second recording marked each agent route. After
just thirty agent visits emergent ‘tracks’ (common paths) and ‘screens’ (structures
of closed doors) could be observed; comparing favourably to the several thousand
generations required by Space Syntax simulations. (Figs. 6-8)
Fig.6 (above): Random door opening
produced concentric rings, akin to
courtyard cloisters. Agent 'exploration
urges' were expressed by crossing rings.
Fig.8 (right): Frustration formed lateral
structures; forcing agents to travel
sideways. High activity near the
entrance made this marked here,
creating 'vestibule' spaces. In later
generations the screens behind here
dissolved into single panels; creating
central areas of exploration.
Fig.7 (above): Satisfaction of agent door
choice produced diagonal structures,
promoting access into the matrix.
Initially this benefited exploration; but in
later generations these screens became
permanent, dictating movement.
Each ecology went through several generational phases. This accumulation and
change depicts the evolution of a dialogic accord between the two systems. The
maze developed understandings of how it was being understood; this ‘learning’ was
expressed in the ‘screen’ constructions. Gradually the environment became
effective at influencing occupancy to suit its desires.
Starting from a maze, this system has demonstrated the folding of space into
labyrinthine (or recognisable) orders. It hints how common architectural and urban
features and compositions may have accumulated from interactions of emotive and
desire based occupancy. This provides an experimental basis for a novel
understanding of urban order.
4. Current Applications
4.1. The Cretan Palace Complex
Since the initial digital experiments the agent genus has been entirely re-coded. It
now achieves a greater spatial resolution and can be implemented in high numbers.
Further optimisations allow it to operate successfully within more complex active
architectural plans. A collaboration between the author and Quentin Letesson
[Letesson, 2009] is deploying these agents within reconstructed plans of the
ancient Cretan Palaces of Malia, Phaistos and Zakros.
To date this has demonstrated that the approach can provide similar results to
Space Syntax including agent tracks and an inter-visibility plan outputs. It can also
produce isovist pathway mappings that record spatial comprehension at key
behavioural switches. (Fig. 9)
Fig.9 (left):
Agent analysis of
Zakros Palace
Further behavioural layers are now being added to the agent genus. Future
experiments will seek common behaviour patterns within the palace complexes for
comparison to established archaeological analysis. A degree of correlation is
expected to identify labyrinthine orders within these proto-urban constructions.
Particular focus is being given to areas of 'polythyra', pier and door partitions which
were opened or closed depending on spatial occupation; a device which strongly
emulates the switching spaces experimentally identified previously.
4.2. Experimental Architectures
The themes outlined in this paper were first implemented in built form in the
author's own 'Switching Labyrinth' installation. This was constructed in a warehouse
near Euston Station, London, in June 2009, providing a framework for two weeks of
experimental occupation.
Consisting of 250 metres of curtains hung from a suspended space-frame, the
installation provided pathways around two small 'room' spaces. As occupants
explored these, an algorithm observed their progress and periodically shifted
curtains. This collapsed the extant labyrinth structure and produced fragmentary,
'maze-like' arrangements; these in turn coalesced into novel labyrinthine routes
based upon user movement.
The author now tutors graduate students at UCL's Bartlett School of Architecture
who are developing full scale interactive installations. All of these explore notions of
switching space and behaviour and how they might apply to create novel, delightful
architectures.
4.3. Olympic Wayfinding
2012's Olympic Games centred around Stratford Park, in East London. In the four
years prior to the Games, this was 'regenerated' from industrial wastelands to
create a new urban public space with extensive gardens, bridges and plazas. With
four major venues within the park, creation of a coherent pedestrian wayfinding
strategy was a paramount design issue.
Fig.10: Olympic Wayfinding, Zone Beacon, rotational views.
Fig.11: Olympic Wayfinding, Main Beacon, rotational views.
Within professional practice, the author acted as Architect for the design and
delivery of a family of thirteen wayfinding structures across the Olympic Park; six
7m high 'zone beacons', five 14m high 'main beacons' and two 12m high, 32m wide
entrance gantries. (Figs 10-12) Rather than simply highlighting optimal routes,
these high profile structures were detailed to echo ancient and familiar architectural
features (such as masonry quoining); facilitating them to be recognised and
operate more fully as a chain of landmarks for the passerby's mental reconstruction of labyrinth paths across the landscape.
Fig.12: Olympic Wayfinding, Entrance Gantry.
5. Reconstructing the Labyrinth
Theseus, the hero of Greek legend, is known for navigating the Minoan Labyrinth
and slaying the Minotaur. Less well known is how, on his return to Greece, he
became a prototypic urban designer, recognised for the first synoecism (dwelling
together or civil union) of the polis of Athens. A conurbation of small towns was
threaded into a monocursal entity; at the very beginnings of public urban culture
lies a hidden labyrinth order.
We no longer recognise this order in the contextualisation of civil spaces of our
cities. If we did, it would provide an innovative emotive and behavioural realignment of the syntaxes that we currently apply in readings of urban complexes.
The works described in this paper are small interventions which have attempted to
establish evidence for and design using this approach.
Reconstruction of an understanding of continuous labyrinthine systems within
contemporary city complexes offers potential alternative approaches to their
shaping and occupation. Doing this would break down current reductionist readings
of navigation ‘from A to B’ within the city suggest innovative urban orders which
have at their heart multi-various, rich, active interpretations of public realm.
6. Acknowledgements
All images are copyright the Author.
Thanks go to my colleagues at Surface Architects, as well as the London Organising
Committee for the Olympic Games. Professor Stephen Gage of UCL has, as ever,
been supportive.
Final thanks go to Elizabeth Upham, for her patience.
7. Bibliography
[Brooks, 1999] Rodney A. Brooks, Cambrian Intelligence: the early history of the new
AI, (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999)
[Gage, 2006] Stephen Gage, ‘The Wonder of Trivial Machines’, Systems Research and
Behavioural Science, vol.23 (2006) pp.771-8
[Gage, 2007a] Stephen Gage, ‘How to design a black and white box’, Kybernetes,
vol.36 no.9/10 (2007) pp.1329-39
[Gage, 2007b] Stephen Gage, ‘Constructing the User’, Systems Research and
Behavioural Science, vol.24 (2007) pp.313-22
[Gibson, 1979] James J. Gibson, The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception,
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1979)
[Glanville, 1999] Ranulph Glanville, ‘Re-searching Design and Designing Research',
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[Kern, 2000] Hermann Kern, Through the Labyrinth: Designs and Meanings over
5,000 Years, (New York: Prestel, 2000)
[Letesson, 2009] Quentin Letesson, Du phénotype au génotype: analyse de la
syntaxe spatiale en architecture minoenne, (Louvain-la-Neuve, 2009)
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Vacuii, (unpublished, personal correspondence, dated 9 March 2005)
[Penn and Turner, 2002] Alan Penn and Alasdair Turner, ‘Space Syntax Based Agent
Simulation’, in Michael Schreckenberg and Som Deo Sharma (eds.) Pedestrian and
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[Visit Portugal, 2012] www.visitportugal.com/BoatTripsinPorto (last accessed 04/06/2012)
8. Biography
Sam McElhinney is an Architect who studied at Cambridge University and the Bartlett,
University College London. On graduation from UCL he won the Ambrose Poynter
Prize for his thesis 'Labyrinths, Mazes and the Spaces Inbetween' and in 2010 he won
‘Best Paper’ at the European Meeting of Cybernetics and Systems Research, Vienna.
Since 2005 Sam has been a key member of Surface, an award winning design
practice. He is currently lead Architect for Surface's most high profile built project
yet, a series of Wayfinding Structures for the 2012 Olympic Games.
Sam tutors Architecture at Canterbury and UCL universities and has lectured at
Cambridge University and at the MAXXI Centre in Rome.