Journal of Life Sciences Volume 8 Number (5)
J LS
Journal of Life Sciences
Volume 8, Number 7, July 2014 (Serial Number 75)
Contents
Physiology and Biochemistry
563
Removal of Pesticides and Polychlorinated Biphenyls from Municipal Wastewater by Reed Beds in A Constructed Wetland
Teresa Ozimek and Wojciech D ąbrowski 570
The Diversity of the Environmental Impact in Kurzeme
Imants Liepa and Oskars Za ļkalns 582
On-farm Evaluation of Effect of Organic and Mineral Fertilizers on Biomass and Yield of Millet/Cowpea Intercrop in the Sahel, West Africa
Hide Omae, A. K. Saidou and Satoshi Tobita
Botany and Zoology
593
Detection and Protein Modelling for Consensus Region of hsp70 Gene Family in Egyptian Arundo donax
Mohamed A. Ezz, Mona I. Salah and Abdullah I. Ammoura 603
The Emergence of Hybrid Seeds and Polyembryony in Some Citrus Cultigens
Nino Davit Kipiani 605
Effects of Fermented Whey in Treating Bacillary Dysentery and on the Gastrointestinal Flora of Apparently Healthy Albino Rats
Tinuola Tokunbo Adebolu and Sunday A. Awe
Interdisciplinary Researches
610 Osteoporosis as A Source of Tissue Mineralization Research on Osteoporosis Therapy and Dissolution of Arterial Mineralization
Maciej Pawlikowski 626
Economical Analysis of Milk Production in the Farms of Siedlce Region
Sosnowski Jacek, Jankowski Kazimierz, Truba Milena, Kaczorek Anna, Król Justyna, Roma ńczuk Tadeusz and Kolczarek Roman
July 2014, Vol. 8, No. 7, pp. 563-569
Journal of Life Sciences, ISSN 1934-7391, USA DAVID PUBLISHING
Removal of Pesticides and Polychlorinated Biphenyls from Municipal Wastewater by Reed Beds in A Constructed Wetland
1 Teresa Ozimek 2 and Wojciech D ąbrowski
1. Department of Hydrobiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Biological and Chemical Research Centre, Żwirki i Wigury, 02-089 Warszawa, Poland
2. Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Bia łystok University of Technology 45A Wiejska St., 15-351 Białystok, Poland
Received: April 18, 2014 / Accepted: July 14, 2014 / Published: July 31, 2014.
Abstract: Constructed wetlands containing reed beds are believed to facilitate the removal from water of various toxic substances, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides and herbicides, as these substances partition strongly to organic particulate matter. In order to evaluate this premise, the study investigated the organic matter, pesticides and PCBs content in wastewater and in soil within the reed beds, in their entry, middle, and exit-part areas in a full-scale operating subsurface-flow (SSW) constructed wetland (CW) in Poland. It is found that chlorinated pesticides such as 2,4’dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (2,4’DDT), 4,4’dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (4,4’DDE), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), as well as PCBs in the wastewater. In the entry-part area of reed beds, nearly all of the pesticides and PCBs content in the wastewater had been removed by soil. The level of contamination by these compounds declined with increasing distance from the point of discharge of the wastewaters into the reed beds, as well as downwards through the soil profile from the surface into the deeper layers. Vertical distributions of pesticides and PCBs content were proportional to the organic carbon content in the soil. It is therefore concluded that reed beds act as a trap for pesticides and PCBs, and thus can provide a very effective mechanism for their removal from wastewater.
Key words: Wastewater, constructed wetland, reed bed, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls.
1. Introduction these toxic organic compounds are present in municipal wastewater. They enter the wastewater
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) share with the stream via aerial deposition and runoff into urban organochlorine pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane drains, household domestic wastewater, and industrial (DDT) the distinction of being among the first effluents. Because of their lipophilic nature, they historically recognized persistent organic pollutants. preferentially partition onto the sludge solids during Having many of the same chemical and physical wastewater treatment in conventional treatment plants properties has led them to be among the most [3]. As Kadlec and Wallace [4] have reported, persistent and widespread contaminants in the constructed wetlands (CWs) have a high capacity for environment [1, 2]. Organochlorine pesticides were removing various toxic substances, such as PCBs, commonly used in the past, and although many have pesticides, herbicides. Only a few studies have been been removed from the market, they are still present in published on the use of subsurface-flow (SSF) CWs to the environment (e.g. DDT and chlordane). Many of remove PCBs and pesticides from wastewater [5].
SSF CWs are one of the most common types of Corresponding author: Tereasa Ozimek, Ph.D., associate
extensive wastewater systems used throughout the professor, research fields: wastewater, constructed wetland,
limnology. E-mail: t.m.ozimek@uw.edu.pl. world. SSF CWs consist of beds that are usually dug
Removal of Pesticides and Polychlorinated Biphenyls from Municipal
Wastewater by Reed Beds in A Constructed Wetland
into the ground, lined, filled with a granular medium, outflow from the settling pond, at the inflow into and and planted with emergent macrophytes, most often
outflow from the reed beds. Samples of soil were Phragmites australis [6]. However, the current taken using a metal pipe within the reed beds in three literature offers only limited data relevant to the
transects, A in their entry-part, B in middle and C in behavior of pesticides [7] and PCBs [8] in full-scale
exit-part areas of the beds (Fig. 1). Each sample thus operating constructed wetlands.The aim of the study
took the shape of a cylinder some 8 cm across and was to examine the role that reed beds play in the
with a maximum height of 16 cm (at greater depths removal of persistent organic pollutants PCBs and
sand and gravel were present, Fig. 2). pesticides from municipal sewage.
Each soil sample was divided up in such a way as to represent the layers 0-4, 4-8, 8-12 and 12-16 cm
2. Study Area and Methods
below the surface. The organic matter content in the The research was carried out at the SSF CW at
dry mass of sediment was determined from 15 Nowa S łupia, situated in central Poland, which
replicates in each layer. Dry samples were incinerated receives a steady supply of municipal sewage, as well o in a muffle furnace for 5.5 h at 550
C [9]. as precipitation waters and meltwaters on a more
The content was extracted from all samples using irregular basis. The latter waters are intercepted across
the solvent dichloromethane, which was boiled and Nowa S łupia via the system of stormwater drains, and
cycled for several hours using Soxhlet apparatus. the supply is obviously variable.
Residual concentrations of organochloride pesticides The investigations were carried out in a reed bed
in samples of water and soil were determined using treatment plant that had been in operation for 15 years.
standard methods adopted by the US Environmental Water samples were collected at the inflow and
Protection Agency (USEPA), using a gas chromatograph
Aeration tank
Reed bed
Reed
Outlet
bed Settling
Sampling site
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of constructed wetland and distribution of sampling sites (ABC: the transects, A in entry-part, in middle part and C in exit-part of reed beds).
Removal of Pesticides and Polychlorinated Biphenyls from Municipal
Wastewater by Reed Beds in A Constructed Wetland
Fig. 2 Core of soil from reed bed.
(HP6890, Series GC System Hewlett Packard) outflow than the inflow (Table 1). equipped with an electron capture detector and a
In the reed beds, the highest concentration of capillary column [10].
4,4’DDE was noted in the surface (0-4 cm) layer of The extraction of PCBs made use of hexane, with a
transect A, i.e. the entry area, and in the final section UNICAM series 610 gas chromatograph and electron
of the reed bed, close to the outflow only trace capture detector (ECD), as integrated with a Pro-Gc
quantities of 4,4’DDE (of < 5 µg/kg dry mass of computer programme also allowing calculations to be
substrate) were recorded in soil. Furthermore, in both made. The chromatograph had a BPX 5 transects A and B, the concentrations of 4,4’DDE (non-polar-phase) capillary column length of 30 m, a
were lower at increasing depths inside the substrate, carrier phase thickness of 0.25 µm, diameter of 0.22
with the greatest decline found between the two mm and external diameter of 0.33 mm. Quantitative
uppermost layers. A particularly high degree of analysis was performed using the certified RPCM-200
variation was found in the values for the upper level in model and calculations of the total content of PCBs in
belt A, as reflected by large error bars (Fig. 4). the samples was done through a comparison with the
A similar (horizontal and vertical) spatial results for a standard solution [11].
differentiation was noted for 2,4’DDT (Fig. 5). HCB, in turn, was noted in trace quantities only in the entry
3. Results
and middle sections of the reed beds, and in a The content and distribution of organic matter in
distribution that was fairly uniform on the vertical axis dry weight of soil did not differ between the transects,
(Fig. 6).
but did differ between the depth in each transect. PCBs were mainly noted in belt A in the superficial Organic matter content decreased with soil depth (Fig.
layer (0-4 cm). In the middle of the reed bed the 3).
presence of PCBs was only noted in the upper layers Organochlorine pesticides and PCBs were both
of the profile. In the lowest layers, nothing more than present in wastewater. In the settling pond, their
trace amounts of PCBs were found (< 1 µg/kg dry concentrations in wastewater were higher at the
mass of substrate, Fig. 6).
Removal of Pesticides and Polychlorinated Biphenyls from Municipal
Wastewater by Reed Beds in A Constructed Wetland
Fig. 3 Horizontal and vertical distribution of organic matter in % of soil dry weight (mean ± SD, n = 15) of reed beds in SSF CW at Nowa S łupia, Poland (A: entry part, B: middle part, C: exit part of reed beds, Fig. 1).
Table 1 Concentration of pesticides (HCB, 4,4’DDE, 2,4’DDT) and total PCBs (mean + SD, n = 10) in inflow and outflow water from settling pond of SSF CW at Nowa S łupia (Poland).
µg/kg Settling pond HCB
PCBs Inflow
Fig. 4 Horizontal and vertical distribution 4,4’DDE in substrate of reed beds of SSF CW at Nowa S łupia, Poland (mean ± SD, (A: entry part, B: middle part, C: exit part of reed beds, Fig. 1).
Fig. 5 Horizontal and vertical distribution 2,4’DDT in sediment of reed beds of SSF CW at Nowa S łupia, Poland (mean ± SD, A: entry part, B: middle part, C: exit part of reed beds, Fig. 1).
Removal of Pesticides and Polychlorinated Biphenyls from Municipal
Wastewater by Reed Beds in A Constructed Wetland
Fig. 6 Horizontal and vertical distribution HCB in sediment of reed beds of SSF CW at Nowa S łupia, Poland (mean ± SD, n = 15, A: entry part, B: middle part, C: exit part of reed beds, Fig. 1).
Fig. 7 Horizontal and vertical distribution PCBs in sediment of reed beds of SSF CW at Nowa S łupia, Poland (mean ± SD, n = 15, A: entry part, B: middle part, C: exit part of reed beds, Fig. 1).
Pesticides and PCBs were not detected in the established on nothing more than a mineral substratum discharge from the reed beds
formed of sand and gravel. Obviously, over 15 years of operation, these reed beds had been enriched with
4. Discussion
organic matter from the incoming wastewater, as well At the SSF CW we studied, “old” pesticides such as
as by decaying plant matter. Influent particulate 2,4’DDT, 4,4’DDE, HCB and PCBs were present in
organic matter is mainly retained by purely physical the municipal wastewaters in relatively low processes such as filtration in the reed bed substrate. concentrations (less than 10 µg/L), and they were
The Nowa S łupia reed beds were found to retain 85% removed and accumulated in the soil of the reed beds.
of the organic matter suspended in the effluents We found PCBs to be present in the substrate at
discharged into it [13]. Throughout the 15 years of the 0.2-70 µg/kg, DDT at 1-36 µg/kg. These facility’s existence, the reeds were never cut and all concentrations were lower than those noted in sewage
biomass remained in the reed beds, thus undergoing sludge in conventional wastewater treatment plants [3]
gradual decomposition. After a 10-year period, the but higher than those found in sediments of river and
layer of detritus overlain over the mineral substratum wetlands in the US [4] and in Poland [12].
was found to be 4.0 cm thick on average [14]. The Nowa S łupia reed beds were initially
The highest concentrations of pesticides and PCBs
Removal of Pesticides and Polychlorinated Biphenyls from Municipal
Wastewater by Reed Beds in A Constructed Wetland
were noted in the upper (0-4 and 4-8 cm) layers of the
Acknowledgment
substrate in the reed beds, which is also where the This work was supported by grant no. 2P04G08428 highest contents of organic matter were found from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education in (accounting here for 86-94% of the substrate)..
Poland to Teresa Ozimek.
The levels of 2,4’DDT, 4,4’DDE and PCBs were lower at greater distances from the point of effluent
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(3) The levels of both pesticides and PCBs were [11] EPA. 1999. Method 1668: Revision A: Chlorinated
shown to vary horizontally, with virtually the whole Biphenyl Congeners in Water, Soil, Sediment, and Tissue load of the toxic compounds being retained close to
by HRGC/HRMS. Washington, D. C.: Protection Agency, the point of discharge of wastewaters into the reedbed.
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July 2014, Vol. 8, No. 7, pp. 570-581
Journal of Life Sciences, ISSN 1934-7391, USA
DAVID PUBLISHING
The Diversity of the Environmental Impact in Kurzeme
Imants Liepa 1 , Oskars Za
2 ļkalns
1. Forest Faculty, Latvia University of Agriculture, Latvia 2. Forest Faculty, Latvia University of Agriculture, Latvia
Received: April 18, 2014 / Accepted: July 14, 2014 / Published: July 31, 2014.
Abstract: The analysis of environmental impact effects on forest ecosystems has a theoretical and practical nature. Many methods have been developed to determine characteristics and intensity of this impact. Methodologically, they can be divided into three groups: environmental parameter, bioindicative and combined methods. To evaluate the environmental impact a combined method was used in this study, it was based on trees as the bioindicators and their response reactions, and environmental parameter analysis. In this study the bioindicator was Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), whose response reaction was used to explain total impact volumes of environmental factors in different places in the region of Kurzeme and try to interpret the causes of these differences. As the bioindicators criterion was used response reaction of Norway spruce during a period of 20 years, which was expressed with cumulative and annual additional volume increment, and was depending on the location of the stand and its morphometric characteristics. The empirical material was collected in Kurzeme region in 28 sample plots that are located on two transects and in one reference stand. For the evaluation the widths of the last 40 year growth rings were measured. To express the environmental impact in Kurzeme region a multiple regression model was developed, which explains the environmental impact in the volume of 68.2%, the rest part can be explained by the local conditions of each stand. It must be noted that methodology used in this study is very sensitive, thus, each of the nuances in the dynamics of volume’s annual reduced additional increments has biological and ecological cause.
Key words: Norway spruce, additional volume increment, bioindication, environmental impact.
1. Introduction considered that the impact of the respective environmental factor is unacceptably high, and vice
For determination of the nature and intensity of the versa—in case V j ≤ V crit , the environmental quality environmental impact numerous methods are due to this factor is not significantly degraded. Strict developed. Methodologically, they fall into three standards are adopted in the European Union, such as groups: the environmental parameters methods, the maximum permissible concentration of various bioindication methods and combined methods. The
environmental pollutants in the air [1] 1 . In turn, each methods of each group have their own inherent
EU member state specifies a common framework by character of usage and a range of possibilities. taking in consideration its particular situation, e.g., the Therefore, a choice of a method in any particular case Latvian air quality standards are specified by the depends on the conditions of the assignment to be
national law 2 . The methodological solution is very dealt with.
simple and understandable for everybody. Apparently, The environmental parameter methods determine for this reason, the first group of methods is widely the values of the environmental factors (V j ) and used (their results are used in the national compare them with the critical or normative value environmental quality control and as an expert (V crit ). The ratio of these data determines the level of
the environmental pollution: if V j >V crit , it is
1 http://eurlex.europa.eu/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexpl Corresponding author: Oskars Za ļkalns, research field:
us!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=31999L0 forest. E-mail: spireja@gmail.com.
2 https://www.vestnesis.lv/?menu=doc&id=6075
The Diversity of the Environmental Impact in Kurzeme
valuation even in court proceedings). However, these determined by the knowledge degree of the ecological methods have a number of significant drawbacks.
characteristics of this species and what level of the Firstly, as the most significant must be mentioned
biosystem is exposed to the rating of the impact of the determination of V crit . In most cases V crit is adopted by
environmental factors. The scope of opportunities is
a national parliament or the government as regulated very wide—from the cell to the ecosystem level. standards, of course also trying to comply with the
In the event of the forest ecosystems, a more ecological research findings. It should be noted,
meaningful indicator is the individual trees, their however, that these findings do not always clusters or tree stands. The trees have a number of unmistakably reflect reality. Besides that it should be
significant advantages. Firstly, they are perennial noted that there is always a possibility of the
plants and, therefore, they are able to reveal subjective choice of the adopter of the standard,
chronology of the impact of the environmental namely, by increasing the level of V crit , it is possible
changes during their entire lifetime. This particularly to manipulate the environmental quality rating by
applies to the forest ecosystems of the temperate zone “making” a threatening environment into a sound one.
and that have periodic vegetation, which is manifested Secondly, the interaction of many environmental
by rare exceptions, with the formation of one factors is very important. As a result, a certain level of
annual-ring every year. Depending on the proportion one and the same level, in the same conditions may
of the impact of the beneficial for the growth or the exert different effects on others. It cannot be ignored
disturbing ecological factors, wider or narrower in the rating of wider regions in the territorial meaning.
annual-rings are formed, thus maintaining information Thirdly, one of the most specific characteristics of the
about the qualification structure and the dynamics of environmental factors is their dynamics: over the time
the environment [3]. In this field, every tree can be changes affect a complex of factors and also the
considered as a monitoring sensor created by the impact level of the individual factors. So, once
nature itself that constantly, in the complex and in the determined, V crit values cannot be lasting. The use of
context of the assignment under the study, records and the methods of the environmental parameters is
preserves the dynamic series of the environmental limited by the accuracy of the other component—V j ,
quality. You just decode this information and which, despite the use of a standardized procedure
judiciously use it (dendroindication). cannot fully rule out the stochastic nature of the
Secondly, the making of the dynamic series is environmental factors [2].
usually linked with repeated measurements over a The bioindication methods are based on the
longer period of time. Dendroindication allows a recession reaction analysis of living organisms unique collection of the material in the field and it (bioindicators). Depending on the indication and the
often plays a key role in the implementation of the indicator organism, there are very many and different
environmental rating. It should be emphasized that the methods of determination of the environmental impact.
ring-width dynamic series contains information about They all have a common advantage—the ability to
the tree growing rate changes already when the impact reflect the nature and intensity of the environmental
under the study has not visually yet been observed changes in the complex, in the context of specific
according to other features (dechromation, defoliation, growth and development requirements of specific
extinction of lichen-epiphytes, etc.). So, the groups of organisms. So, the indicator organism can
annual-ring width chronology can serve as an
be any species or even a single specimen. The effective tool for early warning about the direction of suitability of a species to the bioindication is
the future quality of the environmental development
The Diversity of the Environmental Impact in Kurzeme
and the health status change of the forest ecosystem. country. All the objects are on the way of the Many examples show alarms long before the prevailing western or southwestern winds. The wind is occurrence of irreversible destruction of stands [10].
not only a carrier of industrial emissions, but it is also Thirdly, the forest ecosystems play an important
a cause of a wide range of windfalls and windbreaks. role in the economy of each country. For example, in
In the storm-affected forest areas, not only torn up by 2011, in Latvia, the proportion of the forest sector to
the root and broken trees appear, but the shaken out GDP amounted to 6% (Forest sector in Latvia—2012),
trees remain as well. The damaged trees contribute to but in the sphere of exports—22% [4]. By the actualization of biotic factors. The most important improvement or deterioration of the forest growth
ones include mass multiplication of insects European conditions, there are changes in the intensity of the
spruce bark beetle (Ips typographus L.) and the increase of the wood-pulp or the stand productivity,
introduction of fungal diseases (Heterobasidion
annosum (Fr.) Bref.). The effects previously together with the quality of the environment mentioned are modified by abiotic factors. The evaluation permit the economic analysis of the
which, expressed in natural (m 3 ha ) or monetary units,
articulated relief of Kurzeme creates a heterogeneous provision of the national timber resources in the near
emission landing environment—the stands growing in and far future as well.
the upland slopes facing the prevailing winds are in
The combined methods combine the harsher conditions, while the leeward slopes make up methodological opportunities of the environmental
some shelter. These differences are intensified by parameters and bioindication, while analyzing data on
differences in soil and forest site types. The the state of the environmental parameters and the
ecosystems of Kurzeme have survived many years’ response of the bioindicators to their changes. There is
exposure to electromagnetic radiation. The radiation no doubt that this is a more meaningful solution.
source is the former Soviet Union’s military radar, Using the multi-parameter methods of the which was located near Skrunda. A part of the mathematical data processing [5, 6], the statistical
territory of Kurzeme, lying west of the meridian of analysis of the empirical data and the mathematical
Skrunda (E21°56’) 4 , was subjected to intense radiation, modeling of quality of the environment dynamics are
but the eastern side—to extensive radiation. It has available.
been suggested that this radiation negatively affects The aim of this publication is to present the results
wildlife, even the tree’s annual increment [7, 8]. It of the study on the diversity of the environmental
should be emphasized that Kurzeme is an intensively impact at the regional level. The object of research is
managed territory. Without a doubt, that in the areas Kurzeme—a region of Latvia located in the western
of a different economic regime (drained wetlands, part of the country 3 . Kurzeme is a favorable place for
groomed and unmanaged stands), the impact of the such studies. In this relatively small area (13 607 km 2 environmental factors is expressed differently.
or 21% of the country’s territory), several influences The aim of the publication authors is to identify the overlap at the same time that intensify or neutralize
size of the overall impact of the environmental factors one another. The most significant point-type source of
in different areas of Kurzeme, as far as possible air pollution is Liep āja (ferrous metallurgy) and
explaining the causes of differences. To this end, Broc ēni (cement industry) and the Mažeikiai Oil
bioindication is used and an appropriate processing Refinery at the frontier zone of the neighboring
method is developed. The additional increase in the wood yield of middle-aged and mature stands of
3 http://www.liepaja.lv/upload/Bizness/Attistiba/kurzemes_ plano shanas_doc1.pdf
4 http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/russia/skrunda.htm
The Dive ersity of the Environment tal Impact in K Kurzeme
Norway spru uce (Picea a abies (L.) Ka arst.) is used as a bioindicator r.
2. Materia al and Meth hods
2.1 The Mat terial and Fie eldwork Meth hods The empi irical materia al is collected d in Kurzeme e, in
28 pure stan nds of spruce e, positioning g a bioindica ation sampling p plot in each h of them (Fig. 1). Th hese sampling pl lots are arra anged in two o transects. The western side e transect is e encoded by th he symbol Z , the eastern side e—by D. I In each tran nsect, there are sampling p lots in appr roximately s similar distan nces from each o other. The two o transects ar re oriented in n the direction of f the prevaili ing winds. T The geograph hical coordinates of the tr ransect Z: at the star rting
point—N56 ◦ 31’26.05” a and E21 02 ’13.08”, at the
endpoint—N N57 ◦ 21’18.91 ”; coordinate es of the tran nsect
D: at the e starting p point—N56 ◦ 23’32.185” 2 and
E22 ◦ 10’15.8 84”, at the e ndpoint—N5 57 03’52.90” and
Fig. . 1 The layou ut scheme of bi oindication sam mpling plots.
E23 16’02.9 98”. The area a of each sam mpling plot— —400 m 2 (20 m × 20 m), provided th hat at least t 20
T The tree heig ght is measur red by Sunto o type height t bioindication n sample tree es (the first f floor of the t trees
met ter (0.5 m m measurement c certainty, me easuring base e without visu ually observab ble signs of d deterioration) ) are
20 m m), the diame eter is calcula ated by divid ding the trunk k located in it t. The sampli ing plot cent ters in the sta ands
circ cumference in n the height of 1.3 m ab bove the root t are selected d so as to represent a possibly la arger
coll lar, with π= 3.1416. At th his height cor red with a M. . diversity of the stand den nsity.
Pre sler borer, there are d drilled wood cores. The e For all th he bioindicati ion sampling g plots, one j joint
dril lling direction n is from the southern or southwestern n reference st tand is select ted (coded b by the symbo ol K
perp pendicular to o the growth a axis of the tru unk reaching g (Fig. 1)) wit th similar gro owing condit tions and with hout
the core. The o obtained core es were plac ed in 6 mm m dechromatio on, defol liation an nd opera ating
diam meter polyme er tubes, lab eled and deli ivered to the e characteristi ics of the win nd. The refere ence stand is one
labo oratory for the annual-r ring width m measurement t so as the tre ee reference reaction of t the entire plo ot of
usin ng the mea asuring equip pment Linta ab 4, which h the territory under the stu udy is calcul lated as eleva ation
prov vides a measu urement accu uracy of 0.01 mm. above the c common zer ro surface (a analogous to the
2.2 The Data Pr rocessing Met thods understandin ng of the c concept of t the geograph hical
altitude), so for the who ole Kurzeme creating a si ngle In n order to calculate th he environme ental impact t overall envir ronmental im mpact surface . In the refere ence
crit eria—the ad ditional incre ease values of the wood d stand, 50 tre ees are surve yed. The hei ght and diam meter
40 annual-ri ing, height a and diameter r are measure ed for each sa ample tree an nd the drillin ng of
yiel ld, the last
mea asurement da ata of all sam mple trees are used. A tree e wood cores is taken fo or measuring the annual- -ring
or s stand growth h affected by y a factor con nsists of two o widths. The total number r of sample tr rees is 655.
com mponents—th he uninitiated d and initiate ed increment. .
The Diversity of the Environmental Impact in Kurzeme
The first of these to be developed without the implementation of the influence of the factor under the study, the second one is an additionally formed increment exactly due to this impact. Only the additional increment truly reveals the nature and size of the impact. The amount of the two components or the integral increment performs this function poorly as due to natural fluctuations partly compensates the effect of the impact. Additional types of growth can be
years distinguished—height, diameter, basal area, volume or
Fig. 2 The principal scheme of determining the additional
wood yield, biomass, wood, bark, stem, root, branch,
increment.
periodic, periodic on the average, annual, etc. Each of
t ' : retrospection interval ( t ' ≥ 10), years; t : rating interval
them differently characterizes the tree reference of the environmental impact (1 ≤ t ≤ 20), years; 1: reference; 2: reaction in different shades. For the economic analysis
bioindication stand; i: annual-ring width, mm; 3: adjusted of the impact, the volume (wood yield) periodical
annual-ring.
(cumulative) and annual (current) additional For this purpose, in the impact-free area of the increment are the most appropriate. The additional
influence under the study, a reference stand (stands) increment value of the first and the second one can be
are selected, as far as possible with the same forest positive, negative or equal to zero. The first one
site type, site index class, age and density. In the evidences of the beneficial effect of the impact under
reference stand, the greatest number of drilling cores the study, the second one—about the impact of the
are collected (m ≥ 50). From the reference trees are slowing increment and the third—about the made the adequate control. The suitability of each
background effect. reference tree for adequate control of the stand to be The additional increment of the wood yield is
rated is checked statistically by the annual-ring-width determined by the method of Liepa, I. [9], the
measurements. The eligibility criteria—a similar principal scheme is explained in Fig. 2.
growth pace of the reference tree and the bioindication We draw attention to the fact that the controls are
trees of the stand to be rated in the retrospective used in a non-traditional way because the methods
interval. In the adequate control, there are included inherited from agricultural research in forest ecology
only the k reference trees, the Pearson correlation studies are inadequate.
coefficient values of which are positive and significant. In the agronomic trials, phytocenotically Since in every stand, the tree growth pace is clearly homogeneous sown area are characterized by a different, for k ≤ m further calculations, two series of
carefully prepared soil and an even plant location in numbers are used—the average value series of all the the area that provides the opportunity to locate the
bioindication trees and the annual-ring width of the sampling plots close by. In contrast, with the forest adequate control trees.
ecosystems, it is opposite. For example, for the The implementation of the algorithm of the explanation of the air pollution effects, the principal scheme (Fig. 2) is as follows: pollution-free (control) stands are located in the
Z KP
distance of several tens of kilometers. We, therefore, (1)
GHD t t t ) adjustment tool for changes in the study background. KP Z
12732.4 ( GH D
lg H 2 lg H 2
recommend that controls should be used only as an
V : The cumulative additional increment of the
The Diversity of the Environmental Impact in Kurzeme
HZ D ( aD b ) , , : Depending on tree species
wood yield, m 3 /ha;
KP
KP
u ( cD 100 ) empirical coefficients (for the Norway spruce: =
2.3106·10 -4 , = 0.78193, = 0.34175, =
a, , b c : Depending on tree species empirical
coefficients (for the Norway spruce a = -0.0256, b = 1.18811);
1.693, c = 5.794).
t : Rating interval of the environmental impact (1 ≤
By the described algorithm, the cumulative t ≤ 20), years;
additional increment of the wood yield is calculated
together with the bark. The value of this index without t : Stand basal area and its predictive value at the end of the interval t, m 2
G, G
the bark:
D s : The bark volume ratio;
D, D t : The stand’s average diameter over the bark pD q
(9) and its predictive value at the end of the interval t, cm;
wD 100
p, , q w : Depending on tree species empirical
KP
D t D 0 . 1 Z D (3)
coefficients (for the Norway spruce p = 5.25, q =
Z KP
D : The cumulative additional increment of the
117.6, w = 5.0);
stand average diameter, cm; The cumulative additional increment for the bark of
the wood yield:
t ' 1 t ' 1 Z V ; b . Z V Z V ; u . b . (10) u : The bark thickness ratio (for the Norway spruce
Z KP
i : The mean values of the annual-ring width for all
the bioindication sampling trees of the stand under the The annual additional increment of the wood yield rating in the interval t, mm;
is calculated as the cumulative increment differences
t ' : Retrospection interval ( t ' ≥ 10), years;
of the contiguous years.
In order to exclude the impact of differences of the stand to be rated in the interval t, mm;
i ' : The predicted values of the annual-ring width of
stand density (number of trees) of various stands, the
values of the additional increment of the above wood
(5) yield are recalculated per 1 m 2 of the basal area, for
i k : The mean values of the annual-ring width of
example:
the adequate control trees in the interval t ;
H, H t : The average height of the stand and its
The reference reaction of the spruce pure stands forecasted value at the end of the interval t, m;
should be rated, close to which 5 years ago, the
H : The cumulative additional increment in the production of chemical products was started. The height at the end of the interval t, m;
Z KP
mean height of the stand H = 22.4 m, the average
The Diversity of the Environmental Impact in Kurzeme
diameter D = 22.3 cm, the basal area G = 32.20 m 2 /ha,
= -8.539 (m /ha), the rating interval length t = 5 years, the retrospection
KP
interval t ' = 10 years', the number of the
V ; b . 9 . 478 ( 8 . 539 ) = -0939 (m /ha), bioindication trees n = 27, the number of trees of the
KP
adequate control k = 14, the significance level of the
K Pr ed 9 . 478
= -0.2944 (m /m ). correlation coefficient 0.632, the average value series
of the annual-ring width of the bioindication trees: in Example conclusion: during the 5-year period of the the interval ' t i = {1.50 1.62 1.58 1.49 1.60 1.52
chemical plant, the spruce stand productivity has
1.70 1.77 1.75 1.80}, in the interval t i = {1.77 1.70 declined by -9.478 m 3 /ha or -0.2944 m 3 /m 2 of the
1.75 1.60 1.72}, the average value series of the
stand basal area.
annual-ring width of the adequate control: in the
interval t ' k i = {1.70 1.72 1.70 1.60 1.80 1.80 1.85
3. Results and Discussion
1.90 1.97 1.90}, in the interval t i k = {2.00 2.03
For the analysis of the results, the values of the
2.20 2.07 2.20}. wood yield’s cumulative reduced additional increment The forecasted values of the mean annual-ring
V have been used, which present the width of the stand to be rated in the interval t are
K Pr Z ed
environmental impact effect as the reference reaction calculated using the coherence (5), the coefficients of
which = 0.938 and = 0.95714 are calculated
of the spruce stands, accumulated in the time interval
from 1989 to 2008. The reference reaction is according to the smallest square method. Thus, during
expressed in m 3 m -2 of the stand basal area, which the last 5 years:
partly reduces the density differences of the stands in Z KP 2 1.046(8.54 9.45) = -1.90 (mm),
the bioindication sampling plots.
In the research planning, an idea was allowed of the
D 22.3 ( 0.19) = 22.5 (cm), essential impact of the polluted air of the industrial t
facilities located near Mažeikiai, Liep āja and Brocēni.
2 If this is the case, for the values Z V 22.5 , a trendal 32.2
K Pr ed
dependence should be presented from the plot location t
= 32.780 (m 2 /ha),
22.3 2 to the pollution source.
Addiction, of course, exists but it is not trendal (Fig.
KP
3), which convincingly proves of its local origin with 1.046(5.794 22.3 100)
=-0.20 (m),
exacerbations in the sampling plots 4-6, 10, 11 and 14.
H 22.4 ( 0.20) = 22.6 (m), Taken as a whole, the worsening of the growing t
conditions of the Norway spruce in the time interval
KP
4 from 1989 to 2008, compared to the period of time Z V 12732.4 2.3106 10 from 1969 to 1988. Exceptions are the Z transect 6 th ,
0.34175lg 22.4 1.18811 2 (32.20 22.4 22.3
th
12 rd and the D transect 3 sampling plots, where there
is a positive environmental impact. Examining the
significance of the trendal impact by the regression
3 1 9.478 ( m ha ), analysis, it is concluded that neither the impact of the facilities in Liepaja nor Mažeikiai is statistically
5 . 25 22 . 3 117 . 6 significant (coefficients of determination: Mažeikiai s
5 . 0 22 . 3 2 2 100 R = 0.0218, Liep āja R = 0.0067).
The Diversity of the Environmental Impact in Kurzeme
m3/m2 -2 DZ
Number of sample plot
Fig. 3 The dependence of the environmental impact of the distance to the pollution source: D—the southern transect, Z—the northern transect.
In examining the differences of the environmental parameters are done, determining the mean height H impact between the two transect bioindication of the stand, the average diameter D, the basal area G, sampling plots, it is concluded that they are not
height above the sea level H v.j. , the site class B and statistically significant, so in Kurzeme this impact is
age A. What is the role of these parameters in shaping reflected relatively smooth and free from the effect of
the environmental impact? In order to answer this trendal factors. This means that the environmental
question, the correlation and multiple regression impact data distribution within this selection should be
analysis are carried out. It is estimated that by the interpreted by the specifics of the local ecological
reduced additional increment of the stand, except for conditions. In the data analysis context, this means
the age A of the stand, the above parameters form a that both transect sampling plots may be joined in a
linear dependence with low to moderate correlation single selection, achieving a greater number of
closeness. With these parameters, the multiple linear observations and the validity of conclusions. It should
regression model is formed (13), describing the
be noted that an exception is the stand of the z6 environmental impact of Kurzeme at the regional level. sampling plot, causing suspicion about its belonging
The model (13) describes a statistically significant to another general selection. Examination by the -5 dependence (p = 3.9·10 ). The substitution of the
t-criterion confirms this assumption, therefore the data linear equation with the non-linear Cobb-Douglas in the further calculations are not included. Obviously,
function has not given improvements, so priority is this sharp deviation can be explained by the origin of
given to the simplest—the linear function.
the stand and location in the landscape. The stand is a
V 6.040 0.0678 H plantation of the Norway spruce in a well-fertilized
K Pr Z ed
(13) agricultural land, and it is now surrounded by
0.1073 D 0.0151 H vj .. 0.7552 B 0.0204 A
re-fertilized fields of crops, which could lead to so The model 2 R 0 . 6817 shows that the model intensive increment. In addition, the stand age
explains the diversity of the environment in Kurzeme contributes to it—it is located at or near the peak zone
at the regional level in the amount of 68.2%, which of the Norway spruce increment [10]. In all the
can be considered as a medium compliance with the sampling plots, measuring and calculation of their
empirical data (Fig. 4).
The Diversity of the Environmental Impact in Kurzeme
The remaining 31.8% explain the environmental yield expresses the effect of the environmental impact, impact at the stand level. They are due to the inherent
which is accumulated during the entire rating sampling plot-specific factors that are not included in
interval (Fig. 6). But more informative are data that the model (13). This component of the overall impact
reveal the pace of the accumulation of this impact, for each stand numerically expresses the empirical
starting from the onset of the impact to the collection value deviation of the cumulative reduced increment
moment of the empirical data (Fig. 7), thus K Pr ed substantially contributing to the quality of the
from model value Z V :
substance interpretation.
K Pr ed K Pr ed K Pr ed From Fig. 6, it can be concluded that during the
Z V ; Z V Z V (14)
period from 1989 to 2008, productivity losses of the For the explanation of this component, a nuanced
spruce stands have occurred in Kurzeme. Apparently, knowledge of the local peculiarities is needed. A great
the joint influence of a number of environmental
variety is possible, but more often we have to deal factors has been unfavorable to the growth of spruces, with: pest infestation, disease infection, soil fertility,
practically in the entire interval t. However, compared forest site type, the distance to the watercourse, the
to retrospection interval, in each sampling plot at the drainage system status, the stand origin, the time it was varied and diverse. For example, the
management regime, air pollution, climate and other reference reaction of the sampling plot z9 stand has factors, different combinations of which create been positive up to 1995, but then a systematic decline different environmental impact modifications.
started. In turn, in the sampling plots z1 and d5 there The unexplained component of the model is
is observed only an additional increment decrease dependent on the environmental changes inherent to
with a local aggravation or slow down. A similar
each individual stand. Due to its nature and intensity, recession trend is also shown by the combined
each stand is different and in the context of all of trajectory V of all 28 sampling plots, which represents Kurzeme creates a background for the research. This
the average dynamics of the total environmental division of the total environmental impact in impact of Kurzeme. All the graphs of Fig. 6 have a components simplifies the possibility of the simple
common feature that, on the one hand, gradually substance interpretation (Fig. 5).
accumulates the previous year’s impact values, well The cumulative additional increment of the wood
reflecting the environmental impact trendal changes,
-1 -2 -3
Re -4
ālie dati
m3/m2
-5 Mode ļdati
-6 -7 -8
d1 d3 d5 d7 d9 d11 d13 d15 z2 z4 z7 z9 z11 z13 z15
Number of sample plot
Fig. 4 The compliance of the regression model (13).
The Dive ersity of the Environment tal Impact in K Kurzeme
Fig. 5 The im mpact compon nents of the env vironmental im mpact.
-0.5 -1
d5 5 m-3 m-2 -1.5
z1 1 -2 z9 9 -2.5 V -3
Fig. 6 The trendal dynam mics of the cu mulative redu uced additiona al increment: d d5, z1, z9—Th he data of the e bioindication n sampling plot ts, V—the aver rage data of th he entire sampl ling plots.
The Diversity of the Environmental Impact in Kurzeme
but on the other hand—spreads out the impact of the decline in such increment? For the year 2006 reduction, annual values. But often they are these data that are