douglas ondara orang i esp tourism

A NEEDS ANALYSIS OF BUSINESS ENGLISH PROGRAMME

FOR TOUR GUIDE DIPLOMA STUDENTS IN KENYA.

BY

ORANG‟I ONDARA DOUGLAS

, B.ED (ARTS)

C50/20244/2010

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES

AND SOCIAL SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS OF KENYATTA UNIVERSITY.

DECLARATION

This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university.

Signature _____________________ Date ________________

Douglas Ondara Orang‟i Department of English and Linguistics Kenyatta University

APPROVAL

We as university supervisors confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate.

Signature _________________ Date __________________

Dr. Daniel Ochieng‟ Orwenjo Department of English and Linguistics Kenyatta University.

Signature _____________________ Date _________________

Dr. James Maina Njiri Department of English and Linguistics

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my dear parents Ibrahim Orang‟i and Jenes Moraa, my wife Josephine Nyambeki and my sons Kelvin and Allan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Glory and honour be to the Almighty Father for the opportunity to pursue this course. Blessed be your name Lord God of providence of sound mind, health and all the unfathomable daily blessings. I am truly indebted and thankful to my supervisors Dr. Daniel Orwenjo and Dr. James Njiri for their patient guidance, enthusiastic encouragement, useful critiques and conscientiousness in the course of this study. Their guidance and insight guided this study in a scholarly and professional way. I also extend my sincere thanks to the staff (both teaching and non teaching) of the English and Linguistics Department of Kenyatta University for their scholarly and wise advice in the course of this study. No amount of words can explain how indebted I feel. Let me hasten to add that I am solely responsible for any deficiencies that may be found in this thesis.

I also express my gratitude to my dear parents Ibrahim Orang‟i and Jenes Moraa for financially showering this course. Your love gave me the impetus to navigate through the murky academic waters even when the tides were overwhelming. It is a great pleasure to thank my dear wife Josephine Nyambeki and sons Kelvin and Allan. To my wife: thank you for your holistic love, patience and encouragement throughout this course. To my sons: thank you for being part of this rigorous journey and providing light moments when I seemed to have no time for you. Sincere and profound thanks go to my siblings Micah, Ongeri, Nyanchama, Irene and Nyamboba for their support ranging from financial to moral.

It is also a great pleasure to thank all my friends who in one way or the other shaped this study. All my colleagues in the MA class gave a lot of encouragement and motivation for I felt I was not the only one in the struggle and friends: Lameck Mariita, Peter Rasugo, Rose Njau, Geoffrey Kebati and Nixon Osoro deserve a special mention for they played a crucial role in this study. Thank you all for your help and may you be blessed abundantly.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION...ii

DEDICATION...iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS...vi

LIST OF TABLES...ix

LIST OF FIGURES...x

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS...xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...xii

ABSTRACT...xiii

CHAPTER ONE:INTRODUCTION...1

1.1 Background to the Study...1

1.2 Statement of the Problem...5

1.3 Research Questions...7

1.4 Research Objectives...7

1.5 Research Assumptions...7

1.6 Rationale of the Study...8

1.7 Scope and Limitations...11

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK...13

2.1 Introduction...13

2.2 The Development of ESP Course...13

2.2.1 Characteristics of ESP...16

2.2.2 Features of ESP courses...18

2.2.3 Types of ESP...20

2.3 Needs Analysis...23

2.3.1 Philosophies of Needs Analysis...25

2.3.2 Why Conduct Needs Analysis?...28

2.3.3 Needs Analysis Studies...29

2.4 Theoretical Framework...36

2.4.1 Munbian (1978) Approach...36

2.4.1.1 Target Situation Analysis...37

2.4.1.2 Present Situation Analysis...40

2.4.1.3 Functionalism...41

2.4.2 A Learning Centred Approach...43

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY...48

3.2 Research Design...48

3.3 Study Area...49

3.4 Population...49

3.5 Sampling and Sample Size...50

3.6 Data Collection...52

3.7 Data Analysis and Presentation...54

3.8 Ethical Considerations...55

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION...57

4.1 Introduction...57

4.2 Learning and Target Needs by Students...59

4.2.1 Speaking Tasks as Learning Needs...61

4.2.2 Listening Tasks as Learning Needs...63

4.2.3 Reading tasks as Learning Needs...65

4.2.4 Writing Tasks as Learning Needs...67

4.2.5 Speaking Tasks as Target Needs...71

4.2.6 Listening Tasks as Target Needs...73

4.2.7 Reading Tasks as Target Needs...75

4.2.8 Writing Tasks as Target Needs...77

4.3 Learning and Target Needs by Teachers...70

4.3.1 Speaking Tasks as Learning Needs...79

4.3.2 Listening Tasks as Learning Needs...81

4.3.3 Reading Tasks as Learning Needs...83

4.3.4 Writing Tasks as Learning Needs...84

4.3.5 Speaking Tasks as Target Needs...86

4.3.6 Listening Tasks as Target Needs...87

4.3.7 Reading Tasks as Target Needs...88

4.3.8 Writing Tasks as Target Needs...89

4.4 Perceptions of Tour Guiding Firms‟ Managers on the ESP Course...91

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...94

5.1 Introduction...94

5.2 Summary of Findings...94

5.2.1 Target and Language Learning Needs by Students...94

5.2.2 Learning and Target Needs by Teachers...97

5.2.3 Perceptions of Tour Guiding Firms‟ Managers on ESP Courses...101

5.3 Conclusion...101

5.5 Suggestions for Further Research...105

BIBLIOGRAPHY...95

APPENDIX A...115

APPENDIX B...122

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Number of Students and Teachers Selected for the Study...51

Table 3.2 Number of Managers Selected for the Study...52

Table 4.1 KCSE Performance...58

Table 4.2 Usefulness of English...59

Table 4.3 Means and SD of Speaking Tasks as Learning Needs...63

Table 4.4 Means and SD of Listening Tasks as Learning Needs...64

Table 4.5 Means and SD of Reading Tasks as Learning Needs...66

Table 4.6 Means and SD of Writing Tasks as Learning Needs...68

Table 4.7 Importance of Language Skills...69

Table 4.8 Means and SD of Speaking Tasks as Target Needs...72

Table 4.9 Means and SD of Listening Tasks as Target Needs...74

Table 4.10 Means and SD of Reading Tasks as Target Needs...76

Table 4.11 Means and SD of Writing Tasks as Target Needs...78

Table 4.12 Means of Speaking Tasks as Learning Needs...80

Table 4.13 Means of Listening Tasks as Learning Needs...82

Table 4.14 Means of Reading Tasks as Learning Needs...83

Table 4.15 Means of Writing Tasks as Learning Needs...85

Table 4.16 Means of Speaking Tasks as Target Needs...86

Table 4.17 Means of Listening Tasks as Target Needs...88

Table 4.18 Means of Reading Tasks as Target Needs ...89

Table 4.19 Means of Writing Tasks as Target Needs...90

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Branches of ESP...20 Figure 2 Categories of Needs...43

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

English for Specific Purposes: an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner‟s reason for learning.

Learning needs: what the learner needs to do in order to learn.

Needs analysis: the process of determining the needs for which a learner or group of

learners require a language and arranging the needs according to priorities.

Perceptions: One‟s understanding, beliefs, feelings about persons,

situations and events as his/her learning experience which will be the major determiner of the stimuli to response.

Target needs: what the learner needs to do in the target situation.

Tour Guide: a professional whose job is to lead or direct visitors in a country while pointing out and explaining to the travellers and tourists different places of interest.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CNP - Communication Needs Processor EAP - English for Academic Purposes EFL - English for Foreign Learners ELT - English Language Teaching EOP - English for Occupational Purposes ESL - English for Second Learners ESP - English for Specific Purposes EST - English for Science and Technology

KCSE - Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education LCA - Learning Centred Approach

PSA - Present Situation Analysis SD - Standard Deviation

SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social Sciences TESP - Teaching English for Specific Purposes TSA - Target Situation Analysis

ABSTRACT

As employees enter the job market, they are expected to exhibit a high level of communicative competence that is commensurate with the demands of a particular job. More often than not, this is not possible due to lack of alignment between the ESP course offered to the learners and the target work domain. This study sheds light on one of the fundamental principles of ESP: needs analysis. The purpose of the present study was to find out the target and language learning needs of learners pursuing a Tour Guide ESP course as perceived by the students, establish the perceptions of ESP instructors on the target and language learning needs of Tour Guide students and to find out the perceptions of Tour Guide firms‟ Managers on the ESP course offered to Tour Guide students. The theoretical framework was based on the Munbian (1978) Approach (Target Situation Analysis and Present Situation Analysis) and Learning Centred Approach by Hutchinson and Waters (1987). Stratified purposive sampling technique was used in the study. Data was collected from ESP instructors, students and employers in the tour and travel firms. Questionnaires and interview were used to elicit data that was analysed using descriptive statistics. The study revealed that learners are able to articulate their needs as regards to what they wish to be incorporated in an ESP syllabus. It has also been proved by this study that ESP teachers have perceptions on the learning and target needs of their students pursuing Tour Guide Course. The managers of tour guiding firms equally gave suggestions on what ought to be done to make the ESP course more effective. The needs analysis discussed in this study represents a crucial addition to the literature of needs analysis. We recommend that institutions should always conduct needs analysis before the design of any ESP course. Research should also be ongoing on needs analysis and the results of this study can be used to select the content of ESP materials for tour guides. It is hoped that the study has provided a framework for analysing learner needs which can be regularly updated in respect to the ever changing curriculum and societal needs. Moreover, it is hoped the study will raise the awareness on the importance of learner‟s needs in designing any language course.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents information on the background to the study, statement of the problem, research questions, research objectives and research assumptions, rationale of the study and finally scope and limitations.

1.1 Background to the Study

The end of the Second World War brought with it an “… age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific and economic activity on international scale for various reasons; most notably the economic power of the United States of America in post – war world, the role of international language fell to English” (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.6). The oil crisis of the early 1970s resulted in western money and knowledge flowing into the oil-rich countries and the language of this knowledge became English.

“As English became the accepted international language of technology and commerce, it created a new generation of learners who knew specifically why they were learning a language,” (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p. 6). Rodgers (1969 as cited in Hutchinson & Waters, 1987) argues that developments in Educational Psychology also contributed to the rise of ESP by emphasizing on the central importance of the learners and their attitudes to learning. Learners were seen to have different needs and interests, which had an important influence on their motivation to learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learning.

Revolution in linguistics also had a tremendous impact on the emergence of ESP in that whereas traditional linguists set to describe the features of language, revolutionary pioneers in linguistics began to focus on the ways in which language is used in real communication. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) point out that one significant discovery was in the ways that spoken and written English vary and if language in various situations varies, then tailoring language instruction to meet the needs of learners in specific contexts is also possible.

Kenya was a British colony from 1920 and it gained independence in 1963. The English language, however, had reached the country in the mid 19th century when British missionaries came to East Africa and introduced the formal teaching of English (Schmied, 1991). The Kenyan constitution that was promulgated on 27th August, 2010 clearly states that English is one of the official languages in Kenya and it is used in schools and other institutions as a medium of teaching and learning. Kembo (1991) admits that in terms of numbers, English appears to be a minority language but its functions provide it with a unique status, which in other contexts can only be acquired by a (numerically) majority language. It is used for both international and intranational functions thereby falling neatly into the category of English as a Second Language (ESL) as described by Gorlach (1991). It is used in such domains as parliament, in the courts, in the civil service, in the educational system, in the media and as a means of communication among educated Kenyans who do not have a common mother tongue. For many Kenyans,

English is acquired mainly through formal education being a compulsory subject in primary and secondary schools as well as the main language of instruction. English is now being taught in institutions of higher learning in order to equip the learners with the necessary skills that will enable them communicate effectively in their places of work.

Tertiary colleges and even universities in Kenya offer a course in tour guiding at certificate, diploma and degree level depending on the qualification of the learner. The diploma course is offered to students who attained a mean grade of C plain and above even though some colleges admit students with a mean grade of C- (minus) in KCSE. The tourism sector in Kenya relies on these institutions to equip the prospective tour guides with the language proficiency that will enable them function effectively in the work place. Consequently, prospective tour guides are taken through an English language course that is customized to suit the work environment by language teachers. However, customizing ESP programmes to suit Kenyan work environment falls short in defining the ESP objectives since, to the best of my knowledge, there has never been a study conducted to define English language needs of tour guides. Such study might serve as a basis for an ESP curriculum. At present, instructors introduce the ESP programme for the English language courses simply by selecting materials from available commercial texts for teaching ESP along with materials designed for teaching English for general use.

The aim of ESP courses is to equip the learners with a certain English proficiency level for a situation where language is to be used, that is, target needs (Sujana 2005). It is agreed that any decision made in designing language teaching programmes in ESP contexts should hinge on learners‟ needs for learning English (Robinson, 1991, Strevens, 1998, Dudley- Evans & St. John, 1998 & Sujana, 2005). Needs analysis which refers to the process of determining the needs for which a learner or group of learners require(s) a language and arranging the needs according to priorities ( Richards, Platt J. & Platt H. 1992, pp. 242-243) is an inevitable stage in designing a course.

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), needs analysis started mainly in the field of ESP. It is, however, yet to receive sufficient attention from researchers and language teaching professionals since learners‟ needs are rarely, if ever, analyzed; they are rather intuited for them (Johns, 1991). ESP has not received the attention it ought to in the Kenyan context though Maroko (1999) conducted a study on ESP that was based on a genre analysis approach to EAP while Ochieng (2003) carried out an evaluative study on Business English. For an ESP syllabus to be designed there are stages that have to be undergone and ESP itself as an approach to language teaching has branches. This is proof enough that ESP is wide and scholars need to conduct studies so as to test their applicability in the learning of language in the Kenyan context. Needs analysis is one of the key stages in the design of an ESP syllabus and it seeks to establish why particular learners need to learn a language.

Of particular interest are the needs of learners pursuing the Tour Guide course bearing in mind that tourism is one of the biggest income generating sectors of the Kenyan economy. Tourism related jobs have become popular among young people and thus it is of great importance to equip them with the necessary skills and duties. Leung (1994) found out that students‟ involvement in syllabus negotiation based on the experience in the industry (Hotel management) helps in the design of a need-based course. He also gave suggestions as to what has to be learnt to cope with the vocational needs for tourism management that could inform both the immediate learning environment and subsequent course planning activities. This clearly indicates that a study on ESP needs analysis was long overdue in our country.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

For Kenyan tourism industry to realize its fullest potential in attracting and providing high quality service to tourists, it must have a well trained and highly qualified work force in terms of communicative competence. Yet, to achieve this goal, full alignment must be in place in terms of taking into consideration needs as articulated by all stakeholders in the design of an ESP syllabus. Studies on ESP needs analysis as indicated in the background have not been done sufficiently on tourism related courses and yet tourism is one of the backbones of the Kenyan economy. This lack of empirical studies on needs analysis has compromised the quality of ESP course offered in tertiary level colleges. This is detrimental in a country where there is continued poor performance in the English subject in secondary school. For instance, in the

year 2011 KCSE results, English recorded a drop in its mean from 38.90 in 2010 to 36.42 in 2011. This in itself is an indicator that these learners may not be proficient in language skills hence the need for needs analysis to establish the areas that they may need training on. Any attempt to intuit the learners‟ needs may be misleading and the course may turn out to be a replica of what they already know.

On the other hand, the objectives of the ESP course to the students are clearly outlined but they are nevertheless not achieved due to the virtual non-existence of needs analysis. It is worth noting that Tour Guide students should be offered an ESP course that equips them with a certain English proficiency level to enable them communicate in the target situation. Teachers should not decide how and what students need to learn relying on their past experiences since this leads to a mismatch between the objectives set out by the teachers and the level of the students when they finish their studies. This problem originates from the lack of specification and analysis of the students‟ needs. Needs analysis is a means to an end in designing a course and cannot be ignored. This can be done if the needs analysis takes into account of stakeholders affected by the course in question. In the present study, the researcher sought perceptions of three groups (students, teachers and tour guide firms‟ managers) and this contrary to other studies that base their study on only one group.

1.3 Research Questions

1. What are the target and language learning needs of students pursuing the Tour Guide ESP course as perceived by the students?

2. What are the perceptions of ESP teachers on the target and language learning needs of the Tour Guide students?

3. What are the perceptions of Tour Guide firms‟ managers on the ESP course offered to Tour Guide students?

1.4 Research Objectives

1. To find out the target and language learning needs of students pursuing the Tour Guide ESP course as perceived by students.

2. To establish the perceptions of ESP instructors on the target and language learning needs of the Tour Guide students.

3. To find out the perceptions of the Tour Guide firms‟ managers on the ESP

course offered to the Tour Guide students.

1.5 Research Assumptions

1. There are target and language learning needs of students pursuing the Tour Guide ESP course as perceived by the students.

2. The ESP instructors have perceptions on the target and language learning needs of the Tour Guide students.

3. There are perceptions by the Tour Guide firms‟ managers on the ESP

1.6 Rationale of the Study

There is justification for carrying out a needs analysis on the ESP for learners in the Tour Guide course so as to establish what they need to enable them communicate effectively in the job market. This is because Babu (2011) observed that many Human Resource Managers complained that a large number of fresh recruits in the tourism sector considerably lacked in critical communication skills. In addition, Kenya is one of the leading destinations of tourists globally as indicated in the „The World Economic Forum‟s Travel and

Tourism Competitiveness Report 2009‟ where the sector recorded the highest

number of tourists totalling to 1.5 million up from 1.2 million in 2008 compared to Tanzania and Uganda which recorded a decline in tourist arrivals of 7.0% and 4.4% respectively. As Carson (2000) notes, carefully identified needs and appropriate teaching materials for tourism students will provide satisfied customers as well as plenty of professional fulfilments for those committed to doing a good job.

English is also widely used for inbound and outbound travel as well as in client contact (Leung, 1994) and it has also become widely accepted as the primary language of International Business. International in scope and specific in purpose, ESP has encouraged some linguists to conduct needs analysis to exploit the ethnographic principles of “thick description” in an attempt to identify the various elements of students‟ target situation where they will be using English (Johns & Dudley- Evans, 1998). According to Csilla (2009), English is without a shadow of doubt the lingua franca of the 20th Century for

the ever increasing number of non-native speakers all over the world, which evokes the need for a common code. It is the preferred linguistic mode of certain academic and professional domains as well. In this light, tour guides will also benefit immensely from the English language especially that which prepares them to enter the job market.

On-going needs analysis allows the revision of objectives and modification of teaching techniques and materials which in turn lead to the design of a more comprehensive and inclusive course. This is done bearing in mind that initially obtained data on needs analysis allows researchers to set out course objectives and determine scientific approach to teaching. Equally, Brown (1995) pointed out that needs are not absolute and once they are identified, they continually need to be examined for validity to ensure that they remain real needs for the students involved. It can be seen that English language programmers need to conduct needs analysis as part of routine review of their curriculum. The curriculum initially developed for a program may not be adequately addressing the changes that have occurred over time and hence the need for review of any syllabus that is in use.

ESP classes are highly motivating for learners as well as for the teachers. On the one hand, teachers feel that they are teaching what students will need in future, and it is also rewarding to teach according to perceived needs of one‟s students. On the other hand, it is motivating for students because they feel that their needs are being fulfilled since the content is designed to fit their needs,

improve their abilities and develop their competences in order for them to work properly in their prospective work stations. When the ESP learners take some responsibility for their own learning and are invited to negotiate some aspects of course design, the subject matter and course content have relevance for them. They also feel motivated to become more involved in their learning and often seem to participate more actively in class. In contrast, McDonough (1984) noted that it was the experience of many teachers that their target specifications seemed to break down with a group of learners who wanted to learn a variety of English or a particular skill that was not originally envisaged in their programme. As a result, they demanded that the programme be set up in a particular way because they had certain expectations of the whole teaching- learning process that they brought with them and estimated their own strengths and weaknesses according to a certain criteria. This means that we may be in for a rude shock if there may be attempts to design a course that does not uphold to the democratic philosophy as will be discussed hereafter. Students may stage a „coup de‟tat‟ and take the responsibility of a learning a course, thanks to the neglect by the teachers in the design of a course.

Needs analysis plays an important role in developing materials that meet the learners‟ needs. Richards (2001) strongly stated that an important concern in ESP is needs analysis. Richard further said that rather than developing a course around analysis of a language, ESP started instead with an analysis of the learners‟ needs. He goes further to state that needs analysis is the most notable characteristic of ESP. Without needs analysis, an ESP programme would only

offer general English with the indeterminate flag of ESP. It is relatively easy to adapt materials for a programme that was defined in terms of needs analysis. Indeed, materials are integral to any given course and failure to carry out needs analysis means the selection of materials that may not fully meet the learners‟ expectations.

This study was necessitated by the importance of the tourism sector and hence the need to have competent staff that can communicate effectively. Similarly, the desire to use the results to recommend changes to the existing ESP knowledge with an aim of improving the quality of the Tour guide ESP course offered in the Kenyan context and the competence of those who work in the hotel industry also motivated this study.

1.7 Scope and Limitations

Needs analysis is a complex process which is usually followed by syllabus design, selection of course materials, learning a course and evaluation, but this study confined itself to needs analysis because all the aforementioned processes subsequent to needs analysis were beyond the scope of this study. This is because the aim of the study was just to carry out a needs analysis that can be used to do the other processes.

We limited our study to the Tour Guide course in the tertiary level in spite of the knowledge that other courses in the tourism industry also make use of ESP. This is due to the fact that target needs of those others may not correspond wholesomely to Tour Guide needs.

The researchers only collected data from learners pursuing the Tour Guide course, ESP instructors and employers of the tour guides and this is because Robinson (1991) believes that needs analysts should be cautious in collecting information from various sources due to the multiplicity and diversity of the views on prerequisites for an ESP course.

The study was based in Nairobi County because it is a cosmopolitan town that has learners from all over the country (Ochieng, 2003), has the tertiary level colleges that offer the course in question and the firms that have businesses in the Hotel industry that provided the required data.

In conclusion, this chapter has presented information on: background to the study, statement of the problem, the research objectives, research questions, and research assumptions, rationale of the study and the scope and limitations of the study. The succeeding chapter will present the literature review and theoretical framework of the study.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORK

2.1 Introduction

This chapter will put the present study into perspective in relation to other works. Our literature review will discuss briefly the development of ESP, characteristics of ESP, types of ESP and needs analysis. Lastly, the theoretical framework of the study is discussed.

2.2 The Development of ESP Course

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) have provided a five stage synopsis of the development of ESP. It comes out clearly that each of these stages has one area of activity that appears to be fundamental. The stages are the concept of special language: register analysis, rhetorical or discourse analysis, target situation analysis, skills and strategies and learning- centred approach.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) state that register analysis stemmed from the basic principle that the English of, say, Electrical Engineering constituted a specific register different from that of, say, Biology or General English. It requires the identification of grammatical and lexical features of those registers. Register analysis revealed that there was very little that was distinctive in the sentence of scientific English beyond a tendency to favour particular forms such as the present simple tense, the passive voice and nominal compounds. It did not, for example, reveal any forms that were not

found in general English. So, the syllabus supporting register analysis includes teaching materials that consist of those linguistic features.

Rhetorical or discourse analysis, which is the second stage, emerged as a result of the developments of linguistics in the world. Attention was paid to how sentences were combined to produce meaning. Identifying the organisational patterns in texts and specifying the linguistic means by which these patterns were signalled was the main concern (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). The basic hypothesis of this stage is succinctly expressed by Allen and Widdowson (1974) who took the view that the difficulties which the students encountered arose not so much from a defective knowledge of the system of English, but from an unfamiliarity with English use, and that consequently their needs could not be met by a course which simply provided further practice in the composition of sentences, but only by one which developed a knowledge of how sentences are used in the performance of different communicative acts.

The third stage, the target situation analysis, aims at establishing procedures for relating language analysis more closely to learners‟ reasons for learning. In order to enable learners function adequately in a target situation, the situation in which the learners will use the language they are learning and the target should be identified, an analysis of the specialised language forms needed in that situation which is known as the procedures of needs analysis should be carried out (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). The scope of this study falls under this stage because we established Tour Guide learners‟ reasons for learning

ESP, that is, the needs that make tour guides competent in the target situation (work domain).

Skills and strategies, which is the fourth stage, considers not the language itself but the thinking processes that underlie language use (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.13). The principal idea behind the skill-centred, is that underlying all language use there are common reasoning and interpreting processes, which regardless of surface forms, enable us to extract meaning from discourse. Therefore, the focus should be on the underlying interpretative strategies, surface forms such as guessing the meaning of words from context.

All the above discussed stages are all based on the description of language use. The fifth stage nonetheless, engages with language learning. It holds the assumption that a truly valid approach to ESP must be based on an understanding of the processes of language learning (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). According to them, ESP is not a matter of teaching „specialised

varieties‟ of English. The fact that English is used for a specific purpose does

not imply that it is a special form of the language, different in kind to other forms. Though there are some features that can be identified as „typical‟ of a particular context of use and which, therefore, the learner is more likely to meet in the target situation. But these differences should not be allowed to obscure the far larger area of common ground that underlies all English use, and indeed, all language use. They further argue that in terms of teaching, information gained from the target situation is of secondary importance to the general

development of competence in the learner. From this approach, one can conclude that Hutchinson and Waters were advocating for a course design that is a negotiated process between students and teachers and, therefore, a dynamic process where students are constantly consulted on the content and structure of the course: an approach with the avowed aim of maximising the potential of the language situation.

2.2.1 Characteristics of ESP

Hutchinson and Waters (1987, p.19) theorize that, “ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learners‟ reasons for learning”. Anthony (1997) notes that, it is not clear where ESP courses end and general English begin: numerous non specialist ESL instructors use an ESP approach in that their syllabi are based on an analysis of learner needs and their own personal specialist knowledge of using English for real communication. Strevens (1988) observed that in order to define ESP, there is need to distinguish between four absolute and two variable characteristics.

Absolute characteristics of ESP according to Strevens (1988), consist of English language teaching which is:

1. designed to meet specific needs of the learner;

2. related in content (that is, in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines, occupations and activities;

3. centred on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics and analysis of this discourse;

4. in contrast with general English.

Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) offered a modified definition of absolute characteristics as follows:

1. ESP is designed to meet specific needs of the learner;

2. ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves;

3. ESP is centred on language (grammar, lexis and register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities.

Based on these absolute characteristics, the researcher is of the opinion that even if there have been modifications on the characteristics of ESP, all of them are focused on the learner‟s needs and are very relevant. Any modification made is geared towards having a positive pedagogical implication on the learner. To put the present study in perspective, the needs that were identified in this study are designed to meet the specific needs of tour guides and the content of the prospective course will be centred on the language skills and genres appropriate to the target work domain. This is what according to Fiarito (2005) makes ESP motivating to students because it allows learners to apply the subject matter and language they learn in their English classes to their main field of study (tour guiding in the present study). This is in tandem with the characteristics discussed above.

Variable characteristics from Strevens (1988) point of view, state that ESP may be but is not necessarily:

2. taught according to any pre-ordained methodology (p.12).

Equally, Dudley-Evans and St. John (1997) modified these characteristics. They postulate as follows:

1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;

2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English;

3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at tertiary level institutions or in a professional work station. It could, however, be designed for learners at a secondary school level;

4. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners (1998, pp. 4-5)

On the variable characteristics, the researcher can conclude that indeed it is true that ESP may be designed for specific disciplines just like the present study did, may use a different methodology from that of general English because of its aim to attain some competence required either in the learning or target situation. Equally, the assertion that ESP can be designed for adult learners at tertiary level, institutions or in a professional work station can be attested by the present study that is analysing needs for learners in the tertiary level. ESP can also be said to be geared towards successfully imparting knowledge about the learning and target situation albeit in a more cost effective way as opposed to general English.

2.2.2 Features of ESP Courses

There are features that distinguish ESP courses from the other courses and these help an ESP practitioner to judge whether a course is tailored to meet

learners‟ specific needs or it is just a duplication of a general English course. They include the following:

1. authentic materials: use actual text from the discipline or occupation in modified or unmodified form ( books, forms, charts, graphs etc)

2. purpose related orientation: simulating real tasks required of the target setting such as reading of papers written by others, practise note-taking etc.

3. self direction: learners must have a certain amount of freedom to decide what to study and how they will approach the topic. Facilitating this freedom might include teaching specific learning strategies related to the discipline or occupation (Carver, 1983; Gatehouse, 2001).

From these features, one can conclude that the use of authentic materials is entirely feasible in that authentic texts and teaching materials that are entirely comprehensible are introduced into the language situation. Also, purpose related orientation of tasks aims at creating a real purpose for language use and provide a natural context for language study. On self direction, learners are turned into language users and this is done by giving them a certain degree of freedom to decide when, what and how they will study. They become language users by learning to communicate through interaction, utilizing the target language and making use of their own linguistic resources, knowledge and experience.

2.2.3 Types of ESP

There have been a number of attempts to draw up a classification for the different branches of ESP. Consequently, Strevens (1977) identifies two main types of ESP:

1. English for Academic Purposes 2. English for Occupational Purposes.

The figure below shows the branches of ESP and thereafter follows the explanation.

Figure 1: Branches of ESP

2.2.4 English for Occupational Purposes (EOP)

Anthony (1997) defines EOP as the portion of the curriculum which prepares students for gainful employment in occupations ranging from low-skilled to sophisticated jobs in technical fields. According to him, most EOP classes will

ESP

EOP EAP

VSL Vocational English e.g. English for Auto Mechanics

Professional English for Business, Economics etc

EAP English for Academic Purposes

EST English for Science and Technology

consistently expose students to sufficient training in reading, writing, speaking and listening. From the trainings, the students explore their specific job functions that are required and necessary in their field of work.

In EOP, instructors are more interested in exposing learners to work place skills which are needed to enter, maintain and advance in the world of work (Bukhart, 1996). This is because the learners are more interested in preparing themselves for better and more opportunities for success in the work place. Dominguez and Rokowski (2002) pointed out that EOP emerged due to the fact that English has become a necessary tool in order to obtain a job, get promoted, and perform effectively in the job market. Similarly, Swales (1990) noted that EOP is where English is used for finding or keeping a job, or more generally any activity that is related to work.

In many EOP studies and modules, needs analysis leads to a well structured and organised programme. The Tour Guide ESP course falls under EOP since its aim is to equip learners with the necessary communicative skills to enable them function competently in the work place (target situation). This can be reinforced by Dudley-Evans and St. John (1997) who argued that the teaching process of any kind of language for occupational purposes should take as a starting point the analysis of the four language skills within an appropriate context. Generally, one can argue that EOP is more general than ESP because it does not focus on the specific job disciplines but more general on basic skills required by students in order to prepare them for the work place.

2.2.5 English for Academic Purposes (EAP)

EAP involves teaching students to use language appropriately for a study. Swales (1990) acknowledges that EAP is aimed at achieving a certain level of proficiency in academic reading and writing and therefore concentrated especially on graduate theses and dissertation writing. Swales also says that EAP can be used as a „conspicuous learning tool‟ in both reading and writing. It is an educational approach and set of beliefs that is often contrasted with general English courses: the starting point of EAP is the learner and their situation rather than the language; secondly, many EAP courses focus more on reading and writing, whereas many general English language courses concentrate on speaking and listening; EAP courses tend to teach formal, academic genres rather than the conversational and social genres taught in general English courses. EST which is a branch of EAP covers that area of written English that extends from the „peer‟ writing of scientists and technically oriented professionals to the writing aimed at skilled technician (Trimble, 1985).

According to Gillet and Wray (2006), EAP is a practical branch of ELT in which the role of the EAP lecturer is to find out what they have to do in their academic courses, and help them to do this well in the time available. Needs analysis is the starting point of EAP course design and teaching. On the basis of this, the EAP lecturer or course designer can specify course objectives, which lead to an assessment of the resources available and use of the

appropriate syllabus and methodology. Implementation of the syllabus then leads to an evaluation of the course in terms of its effectiveness. It is evident that EAP as a branch of ESP makes use of needs analysis that is geared towards establishing learners‟ needs in the learning of the course or what is popularly known as learning needs by Hutchinson and Waters (1987). This study also falls partly under EAP since the learning needs of the students were established.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) argue that there is not a clear-cut distinction between EAP and EOP. People can work and study simultaneously since it is likely that in many cases the language learnt for immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes up, or returns to, a job. This to some extent explains Carver (1983)‟s reason for categorising both EAP and EOP under ESP. It appears that Carver is implying that the end purpose of both EAP and EOP are one in the same: employment. Both EAP and EOP are built around the principle of identifying the needs of a learner and then seeking to develop a course that incorporates both the purpose and the functions for which a language may be required.

2.3 Needs Analysis

According to West (1994), needs analysis was generally very informal until 1970s and little research was done as language teachers based their teaching on

some kind of intuitive or informal analysis of students‟ needs. He was the first

to introduce needs analysis in his work. After that, many scholars came forward and realised the importance of needs analysis.

Richards, Platt J. and Platt H. (1992, pp. 242-243) stated that needs analysis is the process of determining the needs for which a learner or group of learners require(s) a language and arranging the needs according to priorities. On the other hand, Nunan (1988 p.13) focused more on the information gathering

process; he states that “techniques or procedures for collecting information to

be used in syllabus design are referred to as needs analysis.” It is worth mentioning at this stage that the terms „needs analysis‟ and „needs assessment‟

are used interchangeably, nonetheless, „needs analysis‟ is the term we will use

throughout this study and this is due to the fact that it is the most commonly used term by a number of scholars.

Ritcheritch and Chancerell (1987) argue that the aim of needs analysis is not only to identify elements which will lend themselves to training but to establish relative importance, to find out what is indispensable, necessary or merely desirable.

West (1994) stated that needs analysis is essentially a pragmatic activity focused on specific situations, although grounded on general theories, such as the nature of language and curriculum.

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), needs analysis started mainly in the field of ESP and they say that as far as needs analysis is concerned, there should not be any differences between ESP and general English. Similarly, Richards (1990 as cited in West, 1994 p.13) believes that most of the literature

in needs analysis originally came from the realm of TESP (Teaching English for Specific Purposes) but needs analysis procedures have come to be seen as fundamental to the planning of general language courses.

Iwai et al (1999) state that the term needs analysis generally refers to the activities that are involved in collecting information that will serve as the basis for developing a curriculum that will meet the needs of a particular group of students.

All these definitions according to the researcher are all learner oriented, in that, the ultimate goal of carrying out a needs analysis is to design a course that will make the learner have an edge in the prospective work domain

2.3.1 Philosophies of Needs Analysis

Stufflebeam (1977) states that there are four divergent philosophies that can arise in needs analysis: the democratic, analytic, diagnostic and discrepancy. They greatly affect the type of information that will be gathered.

The democratic philosophy is one in which a need is desired by a majority of the group involved. Whether this group consisted of the students themselves, the teachers, programme administrators or owners of the private school, the democratic philosophy would lead to a needs analysis that would gather information about the learning most desired by the chosen groups (Brown, 1995). In this philosophy, the majority will have their way whereas the minority will have their say. This means that what is articulated more by

stakeholders will be included in the prospective syllabus and what is articulated by few stakeholders may not be included in the prospective syllabus though they may inform the ultimate design of a syllabus.

In the analytic philosophy, a need is whatever the students will naturally learn next based on what is known about them and the learning processes involved. This involves conducting an analysis to establish the competence of the learners in the English language so that areas that they are conversant with can be left out of the prospective syllabus. Analytic philosophy thrives on the principle that before learners enrol for a course, they must have had an opportunity to learn English either formally or informally. Munby (1978)‟s present situation analysis provides a good framework through which learners‟ present competence can be established. For instance, if particular learners know what a noun is, then the course designers may include the noun phrase and the noun clause thereafter in the prospective syllabus.

A diagnostic philosophy proposes that a need is anything that would prove harmful if it was missing (Brown, 1995). The aim of an ESP course is to make learners competent in the use of language in the target situation and hence it will be very harmful if certain content is left out. This is because learners will not discharge their duties effectively and in the long run it will affect the company that employs the tour guides. As a result, a needs analysis should be conducted to ensure that the learners are fully equipped with the necessary skills that will be beneficial to them in the long run rather than harmful. Failure

to which it will be very harmful to both prospective tour guides since they may lose their employment if they are not up to the task.

Finally, the discrepancy philosophy is one in which needs are viewed as differences or discrepancies between a desired performance from the students and what they are actually doing. The discrepancy or gap model is the most straight forward and widely used especially in education (Mckillip, 1987). “The model emphasizes normative expectations and involves three phases:

1. goal setting, identifying what ought to be; 2. performance measurement, determining what is;

3. discrepancy identification, ordering differences between what ought to be and what is” (Mckillip, 1987 p.20). This model is appropriate for the present study because we have to set goals for this needs analysis, determine what is to be included in the prospective syllabus in a given order.

This study made use of democratic, diagnostic, analytic and discrepancy philosophies by considering the perceptions of students, ESP instructors and employers in the Tourism sector so as to elicit data as to Tour guide learner needs (democratic). The development of English for tour guides course stresses environments which enhance learning motivation and learner autonomy (Long 1996; Willis 1996). This learning motivation and learner autonomy can only be achieved by being democratic when conducting needs

self rating with respect to their competence, discrepancy philosophy was held whereby the researcher set goals in order to identify the needs that Tour guide ESP students will require in the target situation, determine which needs should be given priority and which ones are not very necessary based on what the students are during the time of conducting needs analysis as far as their linguistic competence is concerned. This was in conjunction with the diagnostic philosophy to ensure all needs that will prove harmful if they were missing are part of the prospective syllabus. Equally, the analytic philosophy was made use of in that what will be entailed in the course will ignore what the learners already know. This is in correspondence with PSA by Munby (1978). What learners know can only be known after conducting a needs analysis.

2.3.2 Necessity for Needs Analysis

Needs analysis in language teaching can be used for a number of different purposes, for instance;

1. “to find out what language skills a learner needs in order to perform

a particular role, such as sales manager, tour guide or banker

2. to help determine if an existing course adequately addresses the needs of potential students

3. to determine which students from a group are most in need of training in particular language skills

4. to identify a change of direction that people in reference group feel is important

5. to identify a gap between what students are able to do and what they need to be able to do

6. to collect information about a particular problem learners are experiencing” (Richards, 2001, p.52). The present study has been stimulated by all but one of the aforesaid reasons which is about the determination of which students from a group of learners are in most need of training in particular language skills. This is so because this study was not focusing on a group of learners but rather all learners pursuing the Tour Guide course.

From the aforementioned purposes of needs analysis, it is indisputable that needs analysis assures a flexible, responsive curriculum rather than fixed, linear curriculum determined ahead of time by instructors and it provides information to the instructor and learner about what the learner brings to the course, what has been accomplished and what the learner wants and needs to know next (Richards 2001). To sum up, needs analysis aims to know: learners as people, language users and language learners; how language learning and skills can be maximised for a given learner group; the target situations and learning environments so that data can be appropriately interpreted. All these are done with the interest of the learner at heart.

2.3.3 Needs Analysis Studies

An examination of needs analysis studies reveals that there are virtually no studies in Kenya on this subject despite the importance of needs analysis in

any course design. Nevertheless, a number of studies have been carried out in other countries as will be highlighted in the successive paragraphs. These studies are related to the present study which is a needs analysis on ESP students but apparently different on their sub fields.

Ekici (2003) conducted a needs assessment to determine the English language needs of Tour Guidance students of Faculty of Applied Sciences at Baskent University. Students, English instructors and curriculum coordinators were the respondents in this study. The data collection instruments used were the attitude scale, students‟ needs assessment questionnaire and ESP identification form. The results indicated that speaking, listening and specialist vocabulary be emphasised more to fulfil the ESP needs of Tour Guidance students.

Boonyawattana (1999) studied needs analysis of English in tourism. The results found that listening and speaking skills were greatly important in tourism business careers more than reading and writing skills. Speaking was needed most followed by listening, reading and writing. People who worked in tourism business also encountered the most problems in using English in listening skills followed by speaking, writing and reading. The fact that this study was on tourism informed the present study particularly on the language skills because this study also at some point identified the language skills. This was done in the order of the skills‟ importance to tour guides.

Enginarlar (1982) conducted a needs analysis study at the Middle East Technical University in Turkey in order to identify the academic needs and lacks of freshman students studying at social science based departments. Their needs in writing were revealed and the effectiveness of the programme at the preparatory school was evaluated and an important degree of discrepancy between the students‟ needs when writing as well as the writing instructions provided in the preparatory school was identified. We find a correlation between this study and the present study in that the researcher identified the academic needs and lacks of the learners just as the present study did except that our scope was quite wide in that it included all the language skills.

Eikilic (1994) carried out a needs analysis in order to determine the English language needs of the students in the faculty of Veterinary Medicine at Selcuk University. The results revealed that students considered reading skill as the most important and listening came up to be the second most important skill for students of veterinary medicine. The students‟ subject specialists and English language instructors stated that reading was important in order to be able to understand scholarly journals, magazines and reports as well as to translate materials from English to Turkish. Recommendations were put forward by the researcher aimed at improving the existing English language curriculum at Selcuk University. We borrowed much from this study since it was about language skills that we also established in their order of importance

albeit in the hospitality industry. This study by Eikilic also sought the perception of English language instructors just as we did.

Alagozlu (1984), in his study, revealed the English language needs of fourth year Medical students at the Faculty of Medicine in Cumhuriyet University. Students, teachers and administrators were data collection sources. Reading and translation according to the study came up to be the most required language skill due to the fact that they needed to deal with a great number of medicine-related readings which were available only in English. Consequently, recommendations were made for the improvement of the curriculum. It is worth mentioning that Alagozlu‟s study revealed language needs of fourth year medical students and our study also worked towards revealing needs of tour guides. His study came up with the language skills that were needed in the medicine related operations and the present study also came up with the language skills needed in tour guiding operations.

Basturkmen (1998) carried out a needs analysis study in the College of Petroleum Engineering at Kuwait University to assess the communicative language needs of the students. She collected data from instructors and students through structured questionnaires. Classroom observations and examination of student materials and samples were other tools of data collection. Students considered listening as more difficult than speaking, reading and writing. However, the instructors considered the four skills to be of the same level of difficulty. Basturkmen collected data from instructors and students just like the

present study and he also used questionnaires. This study greatly informed the present study due to the correspondence in the respondents and data collection tools.

Isik (2002) conducted a needs analysis at Baskent University with International Relations and Political Science students in order to find out their needs with respect to the writing skill. Students, English instructors, departmental instructors, professionals and administrators took part in the study. Syllabus development and methodology in order to fulfil the needs of the students with respect to their writing skill were some of the recommendations that were put forward. Isik‟s recommendations were very informative to the researcher in that the present study is about learning and target needs and we had to come up with the methodology of learning the course (language learning needs) that can be used to develop a syllabus later based on the established needs. The only difference between Isik‟s study and the current study is that we looked at all the four language skills unlike Isik who concentrated only on the writing skill.

Edwards (2000) carried out a needs analysis study to identify the language skills of German bankers in order to design an ESP course for the bank personnel. Four skills were explored. Writing and specialist vocabulary in banking came up to be specific needs. An ESP course was designed and guidelines for teaching method were set. From this study, an ESP course was designed and the present study also established the needs of the learners that will lead to the design of an ESP course for tour guides.

Chan (2001) conducted a research on language needs of students at Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Students‟ perceptions with respect to their needs and wants, their self ratings of their competence in academic and professional domain were revealed. Their opinions were compared with those of their English instructors. There was consistency regarding the responses of teachers and students. The consistency was interpreted as the students being able to state their opinions on various skills and being conscious in terms of their competence. The present study got the perceptions of learners and their self ratings through a questionnaire and their perceptions were compared with those of the ESP instructors. We sought to establish whether there was consistency regarding the responses of ESP instructors and students and indeed found out that the responses were to some extent the similar.

Keyoonwong (1998) conducted a survey of needs and wants of English in the tourism career. The results showed that the tourism personnel in Chiang Mai considered speaking and listening skills the most important and necessary, followed by reading, writing and translation. The employers were not satisfied with the English language proficiency of their tourism staff. They needed to practise the skills of listening, reading, speaking, writing and translation. This study is in agreement with the present study in that the researcher found out that listening and speaking were the most important skills for a tour guide. In addition, just like the present study found out that employers were not satisfied with the English proficiency of their tourism staff, the same reservations were expressed in the present study.

All these studies were aimed at identifying the needs of students pursuing particular courses in order to either improve an existing curriculum or come up with a course that takes into consideration perceptions of all stakeholders who were the respondents in the studies carried out. In addition, these studies are anchored on the language skills; have collected data from students, English instructors, departmental instructors, professionals and employers; recommended the methodology to be used in the teaching and learning of the respective courses; compared the needs as articulated by the students with the perceptions of the stakeholders who were part of the respondents with an aim of designing an all inclusive and comprehensive course. It is worth noting from the literature that needs analysis can be done on one or on all the language skills depending on the scope of a particular study.

In conclusion, given the discussions of relevant needs analysis studies, it is found out that the Tour Guide course in Kenya would benefit from a needs analysis study. This lack in literature, besides the urgent need to design a syllabus, motivated the researcher to conduct a needs analysis to identify the needs of learners pursuing Tour Guide ESP course. Just like the reviewed studies, this study is about needs analysis on an ESP course with an aim of designing a course that is based on learners‟ needs; the respondents were students, ESP instructors and employers in the hotel industry; questionnaires and semi structured interviews were used to collect data. This shows a big correlation between the present study and the studies discussed above and it

emerges that needs analysis is not confined to a particular course but can be applied across the board.

2.4 Theoretical Framework

Dudley –Evans and St John (1998) propose a modern and comprehensive concept of needs analysis which encompasses an eclectic approach to analysing learner‟s needs. Needs analysis is indisputable to course design and there is awareness that different types of needs analysis are not exclusive but complementary to complete the jigsaw of analysis. This study made use of Munbian (1978) Approach and Hutchinson and Waters (1987) Learning Centred Approach.

2.4.1 Munbian (1978) Approach

It is also referred to as a sociolinguistic model for defining the content of purpose specific language programmes. In Munby (1978)‟s communicative syllabus design, situations and functions were set within the framework of needs analysis. Munby introduced „Communications Needs Processor‟ (CNP) which is the basis of the approach to needs analysis. Based on Munby‟s work, Chambers (1980) introduced the term Target Situation Analysis and Ritcherich and Chancerel (1980) introduced Present Situation Analysis. Similarly, functionalism can also be entwined in this study under this approach and its contribution to needs analysis will be discussed hereunder. The Munbian (1978) approach has been criticised widely but with the introduction of

(1980)‟s Present Situation Analysis, the approach is ideal in identifying students‟ needs. Functionalism was also found appropriate since it talks of communicative functions that the students pursuing a Tour Guide course will engage in. These provided a framework that sought to achieve the objectives set out in this study as will be highlighted hereafter.

2.4.1.1 Target Situation Analysis (TSA)

The publication of Munby‟s communicative syllabus design (1978) on needs

analysis moved towards placing the learner‟s purpose in the central position within the framework of needs analysis. The term Target Situation Analysis was introduced by Chambers (1980) in his article where he had to clarify the confusion of terminology. Target Situation Analysis is a form of needs analysis which focuses on identifying the learners‟ language requirements in the occupational or academic situation they are being prepared for (West, 1994). With the development of CNP, it seemed as if ESP had come of age. The machinery for identifying the needs of any group of learners had been provided: all the course designers had to do was to operate it (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.54).

In Munby‟s CNP, the target needs and target level performance are established

by investigating the target situation, and its overall model clearly establishes the place needs analysis has as central to ESP and indeed the necessary starting point in materials or course design.

The approach to needs analysis is the predominant model in CNP and it establishes the profile of needs through the processing of eight parameters which give us a detailed description of particular communication needs (Munby, 1978). The parameters are:

1. Purposive domain: this category establishes the types of ESP, and

then the purpose which the target language will be used for at the end of the course.

2. Setting: the physical setting specifying the spatial and temporal

aspects of the situation where English will be used and the psychological setting specifying the different environments in which English will be used.

3. Interaction: identifies the learner‟s interlocutors and predicts

relationship between them.

4. Instrumentality: specifies the medium, that is, whether the language

needs are to be used in written, spoken or both; mode, that is, whether the language to be used is in the form of monologue, dialogue or any other; and channel of communication, that is, whether it is face to face or any other.

5. Dialect: dialects learners will have to understand or produce in terms

of their spatial, temporal or social aspect.

6. Communicative event: states what the participants will have to do

productively or receptively.

7. Communicative key: the manner in which the participants will have

8. Target level: level of linguistic proficiency at the end of the ESP

course which might be different for different skills.

The present study used these parameters in the design of the questionnaires and interview guides that elicited data from the respondents and the researcher found out that all the above parameters informed this study as will be explained subsequently. First, on the purposive domain, the researcher established that the target language will be used in the tourism sector and that ESP for tour guides is more of occupational (EOP). Second, the setting (where English will be used) includes in the class situation, in the office, tour operations etc. Third, the interaction will be with customers, colleagues, native speakers etc. Fourth, the instrumentality will be written, spoken, face to face, use of e-mails, fax etc. Fifth, Standard English is the dialect that will be used. Sixth, the communicative events will comprise of listening and reading as receptive tasks and speaking and writing as productive tasks. Seventh, tour guiding being in the hospitality industry, the participants will have to do the tasks politely (communicative key). Finally, the target of linguistic proficiency at the end of the ESP course is expected to be unrivalled for the different skills.

The aim of Munby‟s CNP is to find as thoroughly as possible the linguistic form a prospective ESP learner is likely to use in various situations in his target working environment. TSA refers to the identification of tasks and activities learners are/will be using English for in the target situation. TSA generally uses questionnaires as the instrument (Dudley-Evans & St. John 1998, p. 125). TSA includes objectives, perceived and product-oriented needs and there is an

explanation that the objective and perceived needs are derived by outsiders from facts, what is known and can be verified (p. 124). The target situation cannot be ignored because language acquisition substantially depends on the target language use by learners to convey messages meaningfully for a particular real purpose (Willis 1996; Ellis 2003; Skehan 1996).

2.4.1.2 Present Situation Analysis (PSA)

Present Situation Analysis was proposed by Ritcherich and Chancerel (1980) and it is posited as a complement to TSA (Robinson, 1991; Jordan, 1997). PSA attempts to identify what learners are like at the beginning of a language course. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998, p.124) state that PSA estimates strengths and weaknesses in language skills and learning experiences. If the destination point to which the students need to get is to be established then the starting point has to be defined and this is provided by PSA.

Jordan (1980) stated that the sources of information in the approach are the students themselves, the teaching establishment and the user institution e.g. place of work. The background information such as years of learning English, level of education etc about the learners can provide us with enough information about their present abilities which can thus be predicted to some extent.

PSA represents constraints on the TSA and according to McDonough (1984), PSA involves „fundamental variables‟, which must be clearly considered

before TSA. In practice, one is likely to seek and find information relating to both TSA and PSA simultaneously. Thus needs analysis may be seen as a combination of TSA and PSA.

2.4.1.3 Functionalism

Saussure (1916) divided language into two: language as a system or structure (langue) and the use of that language in utterances (parole). With this view, linguistics recognised varieties within languages such as social and regional dialects, styles and so on. As langue includes the concepts of system, code, language, competence and form; parole includes the concepts of use, message, verbal behaviour, performance and function. Chomsky (1965) also introduced the competence-performance distinction and it was recognised that since language cannot function without meaning, linguistics must pay attention to the problem of meaning. This was done by Wilkins (1976) notional syllabus that organised second language on semantic rather than grammatical principles. His scheme included notions of time, space and so on, as well as, the communicative functions, such as enquiring, informing, requesting and so forth.

In the 1970s, the study of language variation gave way to the development of special purpose language teaching (ESP). The view of functional relationship between linguistic systems and their communicative value gained importance. In functionalism, the meaning of an utterance is a function of the cultural and situational context in which it occurs. The aim of learning is always to enable the learner to do something which he/she could not do at the beginning of the

learning process. Language is neither a set of structure habits, nor a collection of situationally sensitive phrases. It is a vehicle for the comprehension and expression of meanings or notions. Language is for communication. Linguistic competence, the knowledge of forms and meanings, is just one part of communicative competence. Another aspect of communicative competence is knowledge of functions language is used for. It is imperative to state that designers of a course need to include items which they imagine will help learners to carry out communicative purposes for which they need the language and in order to determine these purposes, it is necessary to carry out needs analysis. As Stern(1983) stated, the starting point of functionalist teaching was the identification of the needs of learners and their purposes in learning English, both reflected the philosophy of community education in which much of ESL is located. In ESP, needs analysis techniques can identify the needs which the teacher can try to meet; functionalist approach provides a coherent educational model. To sum up, functionalism cannot be ignored in needs analysis since it restructures the presentation of the target language to coincide with the communicative functions or use to which the language will be put. It can be used together with Munbian (1978) approach in order to establish the needs of students pursuing tour guide course that will lead to a design of a course that builds language competence – the ability to use this knowledge for effective communication in the work domain.

In conclusion, the Munbian (1978) model remains important to needs analysis and we found it appropriate for the present study since it identified what the

learners were like before the start of the course (PSA) and then the needs that were required for one to work competently in the target situation as a tour guide (TSA) and identifying the functions that learners were to use the language communicatively for (Functionalism).

2.4.2 A Learning Centred Approach

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) are the proponents of this approach that is opposed to other approaches that give too much attention to language needs. They propose that more attention should be given to how learners learn. The approach tells us “what the learners need to do in order to learn”. They advocate for a process oriented approach not a product or goal-oriented one. For them ESP is not a product but an approach to language teaching which is directed by specific and apparent reason for learning (p.16).

Learners‟ needs are approached from two directions; target needs and learning

needs. Target needs are defined as „what the learner needs to do in the target situation‟ (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.54). They are broken into three categories: necessities, lacks and wants. The figure below shows the categories of needs.

Figure 2: Categories of Needs

Needs

Learning needs Target needs

Wants Lacks

APPENDIX B

ENGLISH INSTRUCTOR QUESTIONNAIRE PART 1

LEARNING NEEDS Please mark each item by using the following scale 1- Unimportant

2- Of little importance 3- Moderately important 4- Important

5- Very important

LANGUAGE SKILLS How would you rate the importance of the following skills

for your students? SPEAKING

1. asking questions 1 2 3 4 5

2. answering questions 1 2 3 4 5

3. expressing themselves 1 2 3 4 5

4. summarising 1 2 3 4 5

5. describing 1 2 3 4 5

6. comparing/ contrasting 1 2 3 4 5

7. solving problems 1 2 3 4 5

8. reasoning 1 2 3 4 5

9. making presentations 1 2 3 4 5

10.criticising 1 2 3 4 5

11.reacting to speech and lecture 1 2 3 4 5 12.producing correct pronunciation 1 2 3 4 5 13.using appropriate intonation and stress 1 2 3 4

LISTENING

14.obtaining gist 15.obtaining specific information 16.listening for summarising 17.listening for taking notes 18.listening for translating 19.recognising language structure 20.understanding complex sentences 21.deducing the meaning of unfamiliar

words

22.evaluating the importance of information 23.extracting the information not explicitly

stated

24.recognising the speakers‟ attitude 25.listening for discriminating intonation and

stress patter

READING 26.predicting 27.Scanning 28.skimming

29.reading intensively 30.guessing the meaning of words from context 31.referencing( focusing

on pronouns and numbers) 32.analysing

33.synthesising 34.making inferences 35.reading for note taking 36.identifying main ideas 37.finding supporting ideas 38.paraphrasing

39.summarising

40.transferring information 41.responding critically 42.speed reading

1 2 3 4 5

WRITING

43.structuring sentences 1 2 3 4 5

44.addressing topic 1 2 3 4 5

45.developing ideas 1 2 3 4 5

46.grouping ideas 1 2 3 4 5

47.linking ideas 1 2 3 4 5

48.organising the product 1 2 3 4 5

49.using appropriate vocabulary 1 2 3 4 5

50.expressing clearly 1 2 3 4 5

51.using correct punctuation 1 2 3 4 5

52.spelling correctly 1 2 3 4 5

53.adopting appropriate tone and style 1 2 3 4 5 PART 2 Please mark each item by using the following scale

1- Unimportant 2- Of little importance 3- Moderately important 4- Important

5- Very important

SPEAKING How would you rate the importance of your students being Involved in each of the following for their target needs?

Students will use the Language:

1. with native speakers 1 1 2 3 4

2. with non native speakers 1 2 3 4 5

3. with colleagues 1 2 3 4 5

4. with customers 1 2 3 4 5

5. in the office 1 2 3 4 5

6. in hotels 1 2 3 4 5

7. in restaurants 1 2 3 4 5

8. at the airports 1 2 3 4 5

9. in banks for money matters 1 2 3 4 5

10.in travel agencies 1 2 3 4 5

11.in tour operations 1 2 3 4 5

12.in transportation contexts 1 2 3 4 5

13.in social settings 1 2 3 4 5

14.in their own country 1 2 3 4 5

15.abroad 1 2 3 4 5

16.in giving directions 1 2 3 4 5

17.in explaining procedures 1 2 3 4 5

18.in describing tourist attractions 1 2 3 4 5 19.to paraphrase

LISTENING Understanding

20.native speakers 1 2 3 4 5

21.non native speakers 1 2 3 4 5

22.the radio 1 2 3 4 5

23.TV programmes 1 2 3 4 54

24.announcements at different places 1 2 3 4 5

25.films 1 2 3 4 5

26.presentations 1 2 3 4 5

27.meetings 1 2 3 4 5

28.conferences 1 2 3 4 5

29.seminars 1 2 3 4 5

30.discussions 1 2 3 4 5

31.conversations on phone 1 2 3 4 5

32.face to face conversations 1 2 3 4 5

33.varying accents READING

34.academic texts 1 2 3 4 5

35.Manuals 1 2 3 4 5

36.Newspapers 1 2 3 4 5

37.business letters 1 2 3 4 5

38.fax messages 1 2 3 4 5

39.magazines/ periodicals 1 2 3 4 5

40.reports 1 2 3 4 5

41.maps 1 2 3 4 5

42.e-mail messages 1 2 3 4 5

43.bronchures 1 2 3 4 5

44.dictionary entries 1 2 3 4 5

45.memos 1 2 3 4 5

46.instruction booklets 1 2 3 4 5

47.legal documents 1 2 3 4 5

48.the agenda of a meeting

49.the minutes of a meeting 1 2 3 4 5

50.Newsletters 1 2 3 4 5

51.Catalogues 1 2 3 4 5

52.Tickets 1 2 3 4 5

53.Itineraries 1 2 3 4 5

WRITING

55.business letters 1 2 3 4 5

56.Memos 1 2 3 4 5

57.Agenda 1 2 3 4 5

58.Notices 1 2 3 4 5

59.e-mail messages 1 2 3 4 5

60.fax messages 1 2 3 4 5

61.notes 1 2 3 4 5

62.reports 1 2 3 4 5

63.itineraries 1 2 3 4 5

64.tour commentaries 1 2 3 4 5

65.legal documents 1 2 3 4 5

66.user manuals 1 2 3 4 5

67.bronchures 1 2 3 4 5

68.leaflets

PART 3

Please answer the following question

1. Considering the target situation (work domain) of your students, rank the following skill areas of knowledge from 1 to 6 according to their importance. 1 refers to the most important and 6 the least important Reading ( )

Writing ( ) Listening ( ) Speaking ( ) Translation ( ) Specialist vocabulary ( )

APPENDIX C

INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR TOUR GUIDE FIRMS EMPLOYER

This interview is being recorded on a tape recorder in order to enable the researcher analyse the data later. The responses you will give will be used for purposes of this research only.

1. Are the tour guides you employ in your firm professionals?

2. In your view, do you think the tour guides are competent in their use of the English language when communicating?

3. In your opinion, is it necessary for tour guides to undertake a course in ESP?

4. Who do the tour guides usually use the language with?

5. How would you describe the usefulness of English for tour guides as well qualified professionals in this field?

6. Among all the foreign languages, which language is most commonly used by tour guides in their places of work?

8. How do you think the ESP course offered to tour guides could be improved?

9. Do you usually take your employees (tour guides) for in service courses to improve their communicative competence?

10. In your view, should the ESP courses offered to tour guides be designed by a central body for all colleges or should they be run within institutions? 11. In your opinion, how would you rate the tour guides in your firm who have graduated from different colleges? Do they have the same communicative competence?

12. Should the ESP course offered to tour guides be abolished or upheld?