Teachers’ attitudes towards the use of literature in the teaching of english as a foreign language George

commit to user

LITERATURE IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS

A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

A THESIS

Submitted to the Graduate School Sebelas Maret University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Master of Education in English

By

George Chidiebere Iheanacho NIM: S891008116

English Education Department GRADUATE PROGRAM SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY

SURAKARTA 2013

commit to user

MOTTO

Peace is a universal language Never be afraid to speak it

commit to user

DEDICATION

commit to user

George Chidiebere Iheanacho. S891008116, 2013.“Teachers Attitudes Towards

the Use of Literature in the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language.”

THESIS. Consultant I: Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd, Consultant II: Drs. Gunarso Susilohadi, M.Ed.TESOL, English Education Department, Graduate School, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta.

The objectives of this study are to explore and describe teachers’ attitudes

towards the use of literature in the teaching of English as a foreign language and

the factors that affect the teachers’ use and non-use of literature in the EFL

classroom. The study is an attempt to explorethe seemingly sense of apprehension and non-use of literature in the EFL classroom and the fact that the success or failure of an educational material depends largely on the attitudes of teachers towards the material introduced or implemented.

This research was conducted with 9 teachers in the department of English, Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts of Sebelas Maret University, Surkarta from September 2012 to February 2013. A qualitative phenomenological approach was employed and the data were taken via in-depth interview and non- participant observation. In analyzing the data, the descriptive phenomenological procedures of data analysis proposed by Parahoo (1997) were followed.

The findings showed that (1) the teachers have a good knowledge of what constitutes literature and believed literature is a valuable resource for language teaching; (2) the teachers believed that literature offers linguistic, cultural and social values and that it enriches students’ vocabulary development, assist in internalizing the structure and grammar of the language and getting feelings of the language;(3) the majority of the teachers prefer prose to other genres because it is easier to the students and teachers in terms of language and themes; (4) the local (Indonesian) literature has not been effectively utilized because the teachers preferred literature written by native speakers as the best model for language teaching; and (5) even though the teachers seem to have positive attitudes to towards the use of literature as a valuable resource in language teaching, they still have not enthusiastically embraced literature for the purpose of teaching English.Three main factors were identified that affect teachers’ use and non- use of literature in the EFL. These are (1) teachers’ attitudes that literature is difficult to teach; (2) teachers’ lack of confidence to teach literature, and (3) students’ lack of motivation to read literature.

It is therefore recommended that internal and external trainings are importantto equip teachers with the methodologies and approaches to use literature and to increase their confidence. Educational institutions should provide resources as well as encourage teachers to use other materials other than the conventional teaching materials in order to expose and improve students’language knowledge. By using literature in the EFL classroom, the students have many opportunities to enhance their linguistic, cultural and communicative competence.

commit to user

To God be the glory for his loving grace, strength and provisions to accomplish this task.

The role and support of many people in writing and completing this thesis both morally and materially is greatly acknowledged and appreciated. With deep sense of sincerity and humility the author thanks:

1. Director of graduate program of Sebelas Maret University Surakarta.

2. Head of English Education Department, Graduate Program of Sebelas Maret University Surakarta for his immense support and kind advice.

3. Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto,M.Pd., first consultant for his tolerance, guidance and fatherly advice.

4. Drs. Gunarso Susilohadi, M.Ed.TESOL, Second consultant for his advice, guidance and patience.

5. To the lecturers in the department of English, Faculty of Letters and Fine Arts, Sebelas Maret University Surakarta who humbly accepted to be participants in this research .

6. The entire administrative staff of the Graduate School and International office, Sebelas Maret University.

I acknowledge any imperfections in this thesis as it is far from being perfect. I welcome constructive criticism and suggestions and hope this little work may be useful for all readers.

Surakarta, March 2013 G.C.I

commit to user

Page

TITLE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL OF THE CONSULTANTS ... ii

LEGITIMATION OF THE EXAMINERS ... iii

DECLARATION ... iv

MOTTO ... v

DEDICATION ... vi

ABSTRACT ... vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... viii

TABLE OF CONTENT ... ix

LIST OF TABLES ... xii

LIST OF FIGURES ... xiii

LIST OF APPENDICES ... xiv

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ... 1

A. Background of the Study ... 1

B. Statement of the Problem ... 15

C. Objectives of the Study ... 15

D. Benefits of the Study ... 16

CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW ... 17

A. The Nature of Literature ... 17

1. Definition of Literature ... 16

2. Literature and Language Teaching ... 21

3. Issues in Using Literature in Language Teaching ... 24

a. Literature as a Resource ... 24

b. Advantages of using Literature in the EFL classroom ... 26

c. Reasons for use of literature in the EFL Classroom ... 29

1. Literature as Valuable Authentic Material ... 29

2. Literature for Cultural Enrichment ... 34

commit to user

d. Approaches to teaching literature in the EFL classroom . 36

1. The Cultural Model ... 37

2. The Language Model ... 37

3. The Personal Growth Model ... 38

e. Selecting Literary Text for EFL classroom ... 39

B. The Nature of Language Teaching ... 42

1. Definition of Language ... 42

2. Theories of Language Learning ... 44

3. Theories of Language Teaching ... 49

The Nature of Attitude ... 52

1. Definition of Attitude ... 52

2. Characteristics of Attitudes ... 54

3. Attitude and Behavior ... 55

4. Attitudes in Teaching literature in the EFL classroom ... 55

CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 57

A. Research Method ... 57

B. Data and Source of Data ... 59

1. Respondent ... 60

2. Events ... 63

3. Documents ... 63

C. Techniques of Collecting Data ... 63

1. Interview ... 63

2. Observation ... 66

D. Trustworthiness ... 67

E. Technique of Analyzing Data ... . 69

F. Time and Location of the Research ... . 71

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDING AND DISCUSSION ... 73

A. Research Findings ... 74

B. Discussions ... 86

commit to user

A. Conclusion ... 110

B. Suggestions ... 111

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 113

commit to user

Table 3.1 Biographical information of the participants ... 65 Table 3.2 The Schedule of the study ... 71 Table 4.1 Summary of the Research Finding ... 76

commit to user

commit to user Appendice A Letter of Introduction

Appendice B Interview Questions Appendice C Interview Data

Appendice D Permohonan Ijin Penelitian Appendice E Pemberitahuan

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the study

The last few decades have witnessed a rapid interest in English globally. More than two billion people are currently estimated to speak English in varying degrees of competencies as their first, second, or foreign language. English is now taught in many countries and educational institutions as a second or foreign language. As a result, Pennycook (1994:5) acknowledges that‘English and English language teaching seem ubiquitous in the world, playing a role everywhere from large scale global

politics to the intricacies of people’s lives.”

English language teaching involves many components. Kitao and Kitao (1997) list five important components of language instruction/teaching to include students, a teacher, materials, teaching methods, and evaluation. This study focuses on teaching materials by exploring teachers’ attitudes toward literature as a resource. Teaching materials are an essential component of EFL and include a variety of educational materials that teachers use in the classroom to support specific learning objectives as set out in the curriculum. These include textbooks, literature, newspapers, magazines, video, audio tapes, computer software, and visual aids etc. Teaching materials arean integral part of curriculum planning and teachers are expected to play a vital role in the selection, design and implementation of the curricular.

Teaching materials are used purposefully to teach students, to learn, to serve as a guide and resource books for ideas and activities for learning, and to give teachers rationales for what they teach. Teachers can adapt, supplement or elaborate teaching materials to suit students’ need and situations. Although, in the past few years, there have been complains that conventional teaching course materials (textbooks) are heavily redundant, often outdated and do not induce response from students. Such materials do not offer real context to current realities and students do not find pleasure repeating the same thing all over as contained in the materials and do not gain new knowledge. In activities with these texts, the learners only take the role of passive learners. As a result, McRae (1991:23) observes that ‘the dullness of conventional course-books ‘is the best way of stifling student learning. The teacher who follows any course-book slavishly will inevitably bore him- or herself as well as students’.

It is widely acknowledged in the pedagogy that some materials are suitable for language teaching, but are not specifically designed for teaching purposes. A number of authentic materials belong to this category of teaching materials. According to Bacon and Finnemann (1990), “authentic materials are texts produced by native speakers for a non-pedagogical purpose. Authentic language materials are spoken or written language materials that have been produced in the course of real communication and not specifically produced for the very purpose of language teaching (Nunan, 1999). These include: travel timetables, city plans, forms,

pamphlets, cartoons, advertisement, newspaper or magazine articles, literature, TV broadcast, video and internet. They provide samples of authentic language by helping to bring alive the real world into the EFL/ESL classroom.

Collie and Slatter (1987) state that literature is ‘authentic’material. By that we simply mean that most works of literature are not fashioned for the specific

purpose of teaching a language.’ Incorporating good authentic materials in language

teaching could spur students to response, enhance their language skills and language in use. Berato (2006) explains that as authentic material, literature can provide many advantages to improve language skills especially reading. Lazar(1993:17) notes that literature may provide a particularly appropriate way of stimulating this acquisition, as it provides meaningful and memorable contexts for processing and interpreting new language. Pedagogically, literature offers stimulating, discussionary, linguistic and communicative experiences for teachers and students in and outside the language classrooms. This study basically focused on literature as a material or resource for language teaching rather than literature for study, which is the teaching of literature as a subject.

Given the above it has been found that various genres of literature in original, translated, abridged and simplified versions can be used for the purpose of teaching English. Though, since the 1960s, the rationale for the inclusion of literature in foreign language teaching has been fiercely debated among scholars in English pedagogy, linguistics and literary criticism leading Sage (1987) to admit that ‘the

debate has attracted some of the best minds’. Short (1996) describes the development as a ‘border dispute over territory between linguists and literary critics’. The dispute and controversy eventually led to the separation of literature from language teaching.

Under current pedagogies, many EFL teachers still consider the teaching of literature in the language classroom as unnecessary; while a few regard it as a

teacher’s best tool because of its advantages and captivating power. Language

scholars, Collie and Slatter (1987); Carter and Long (1991); Hill (1986); Maley and Duff (1990); and etc., have demonstrated the advantages of using literature as a resource in language teaching. They have also offered theoretical arguments in support of the use of literature in language teaching and a number of activities that can be implemented using literature. Wilkins (1976) argues that by using literature

“language teachers were trying hard to bring the outside world into their classrooms”.

By this, “The classroom, therefore, becomes a locus for the generation of knowledge

and action. It is a participatory sphere, engaged and sometimes improvisational, that promotes liberation from established, official narratives and conventional action”(Naiditch 2012)

Using literature for language teaching, Arthur (1968:199) has discussed the reluctance of language teachers to include literature in the syllabus, while Blatchford (1972:1-6) blatantly rejected the study of English literature as a “luxury that cannot

be indulged, an ‘expensive gewgaw’. Topping (1968) argues that “literature should

complexity, lack of conformity to standard grammatical rules, and remote control

perspective.”

Language educator, Edmondson (1997) rekindles the debate on the values of literature in language teaching and learning byposing two critical questions : 1.) Does literature have something special to offer the language learner and therefore the language teacher? 2.) What justifies the inclusion of the literary components in language teaching programs? Ten years earlier, Collie and Slatter asked whether we should be teaching literature in the foreign language classroom at a pre-university

level, or not.‘The question which is certainly at the forefront of debate today, yet it

remains controversial and the attitude of many teachers ambivalent’(Collie and

Slatter, 1987:1-2). Collie and Slatter note that ‘keeping literature off the syllabus, has produced a certain amount of unease as well. There is the awkward fact that many learners want and love literary texts, as we have found time and time again. Similarly, they often wish to become more familiar with patterns of social interaction in the country which uses the target language.

In a fairly recent study, Lin and Guey (2004) note some critical concerns about the teaching of literature in the EFL context. They remark that “Behind such utilitarian concern of pedagogy is a widely held assumption that the study of literary English has little bearing on EFL learner needs to promote functional command of English. They also note that one of the tragedies of current English teaching is that

disappear gradually from the language classroom. They state that literature has not been given due consideration at many colleges and universities because many educational institutions have put their main emphases on practical language skills at the expense of literature. With these concerns, there is indeed a perceived wide gulf between the teaching of English and the teaching of its literature in EFL context.

Since the 1980s, the role of literature has been reassessed in the EFL classroom. Gilroy (1995) writes that ‘After a long absence, literature has made a comeback into many EFL classrooms having been expelled along with the grammar -translation method... but in recent years it has become difficult to ignore it. Duff and Maley (1990:3) earlier observed that, “there has been a remarkable revival of interest

in literature as one of the sources available for language learning.” As a result,

Bagherkazemi and Alemi (2010) conclude that ‘the current consensus of opinion regarding the integration of literature in language programs is overwhelming, and by far exceeds the points of controversy. The consensus holds great promises as it is informed by current research in language teaching, language learning and acquisition, and psychology’. In addition, Zyngier (2006) points out that literature is back but it is not wearing new clothes; it is we (teachers) who is wearing new spectacles.

Meanwhile, the relationship between language and literature continues to attract scholars’ attention. MacCabe (1985:47) contends that “To truly know a language, you must know something of the literature of a language”. Brumfit (2000), Littlewood (2000), Carter and Long (2000) argue that it is difficult to isolate

literature from language and emphasize the advantages of teaching literature to both native and non-native speakers of English. Regmi (2004) states that literature which accepts language as its raw materials, is not only the mode of expression, vehicle for thoughts but also a useful and effective resource of language teaching and helps the learners in fostering their language skills

By integrating literature in the language classroom, the teacher’s aim is to teach language in use. Hymes (1972) describes two levels of linguistic knowledge: the level of usage and the level of use. In his definition, usage involves a knowledge of linguistic rules, whereas use entails knowing how to use these rules for effective communication. Widdowson (1975) points out that since some literature presents language in discourse where the setting andrelationships are defined, and illustrates a particular dialect or register embedded within a social context, it is effective in developing of awareness of language use. Literature has been used to teach language usage, but rarely has it been used to develop language use. Under current pedagogies, the emphasis is to use literature to develop language use in language learners and for them to attain communicative competence.

With the emergence of communicative language teaching method (CLT), many scholars now contend that literature provides rich linguistic input, effective stimuli for students to express themselves in the language and a potential source of learner motivation. Literature provides opportunities for multi-sensorial classroom experiences that can appeal to learners with different learning styles and through new

devices or texts supplements of audio-texts, music CDs, film clips, video and podcasts etc. Van (2009) adds that since literature is full of instances of real-life language in various situations, it provides unprecedented opportunities to ameliorate syntactic, pragmatic, cultural, and discoursal awareness among learners.

Sage (1987:2) however observes that many teachers consider the use of literature in language teaching as an interesting and worthy concern. Collie and Slatter (1987) who have done research on using literature in the language classroom said that we have found that role play, improvisation, creative writing, discussions, questionnaires, visuals and many other activities which we use successfully to vary our language classes can serve a similar purpose when we teach literature. Engaging students in classroom practices/tasks such as discussion, pair and group work, dictation, dramatization, question-answer, role-play, improvisation, prediction exercises, jumbled sentences, summary writing, and creative writing based on a particular literary text will definitely enhance their students’ linguistic, cultural and communicative skills. Teaching literature in the language classroom enables students to see language use in different contexts thereby enhancing their language competencies. Ikegulu (1989) points out that literature provides an additional way in which learners of English as a second language is exposed to the elasticity of the language.

There has been little concern about using literature in EFL classrooms in Indonesia. It can be argued that many teachers have not enthusiastically embraced

literature for the purpose of teaching English at all levels of education in the Indonesia. Although citing empirical evidence to substantiate this statement of claim may be difficult due to lack of research in this area. Discussions as well as observations with EFL teachers have revealed what might be termed a sense of apprehension in using literature in the language classroom. Incorporating literature in the EFL classroom has not been emphasized by many educational institutions.

In view of this, the non-use of authentic materials in particular seems to contribute to students’ poor performance in the language. Kirkpatrick (2007) observes that teaching English in Indonesian schools and colleges has been less than satisfactory in the last few decades. Students are leaving high schools and universities without sufficient English skills to communicate effectively or compete internationally. Musthafa (2001) who has conducted extensive research on the problems of teaching English in Indonesia reported that one of the hindrances of teaching English in Indonesia might be the absence of good, authentic learning materials, teachers' tendency to rely on non-communicatively engaging learning tasks (such as grammar-based worksheets), and the absence of visible social uses of the language outside the classroom confines. Musthafa states other factors as:limited time allocation for teaching English and inadequate time for students to actually learn to speak English in class because the teacher is more concerned to teach the grammar and syntax.

Nifisah (2006) explains that ‘Teachers-especially in formal schools, tend to focus more on language forms, but less on language functions and acceptability. For instance, they are inclined to teach grammar forms without emphasizing the

functions’. With emphasis on grammar, students do not get the opportunity to

experience literary texts which expose them to the authentic use of the language and enlarge their vocabulary. According to Flora Debora Floris (2005),

In Indonesia, literature written in English has been rejected as meaningful language usage in EFL classrooms. One of the most common complaints is

that teachers and curriculum supervisors find literary texts “difficult”, “hard to understand” and “ not relevant” to the students’ lives. Thus , the use of

literature in Indonesian EFL classrooms seemed like an irrelevance (2005) Nifisah confirms that ‘Using literature in Indonesian EFL classrooms is quite little, if

not neglected’. Reasons that curriculum supervisors care less about integrating

literature in English teaching because they have not come to terms its values, most teachers lack the methodologies and skills to teach literature and students lack motivation to read. Nifisah believes that the present lack of attention to using literature in ELT Indonesian setting requires some points to ponder.

A number of language scholars and English language experts in Indonesia have voiced their concerns about the non-use of literature in the EFL classrooms. In a meeting in 1999, tagged ‘Sastra Masuk Sekolah’, ‘Literature goes to School’ held in Jakarta, Fuad Hasan calls for the teaching of literature in schools. He stated in an article that: “Literature should be introduced to students so that they are aware that

literature is part of language teaching. Therefore, curriculum and teachers of the language should arouse interest in students to appreciate and know the need for

literature” ‘Sastra perlu diperkenalkan pada siswasupayamereka sadar akan adanya

sastra sebagian dari kesanggupan berbahasa. Oleh karena itu,kurikulum serta pengajar bahasa perlu membangkitkan minat terhadap sastra sehingga terbentuk sikap menghargai dan membutukan sastra pada para siswa’ (Sarumpaet, 2002:ix). Professor Riris K. Toha-Sarumpaet, a proponent literary scholar and teacher at the University of Indonesia is at the forefront of campaigns for the teaching of literature including teaching Indonesian literature for high school students. In her book “Sastra Masuk Sekolah”, she believes there is a need for the teaching of literature in the classroom for both language and aesthetic purposes.

Meanwhile, the teaching of English in Indonesia since the 1950s has largely been conducted using traditional approaches which focus on grammar teaching. These approaches to language teaching emphasize the structural methods of language learning, such as grammatical ‘correctness’, repetition of graded structures and restricted Lexis. Long (1986:42) recalls that “some approaches in the past (in a period approximately 1960/1980) have not always served to develop responses to language

or isolate the different kind of responses involved”. Long adds that ‘the teaching of

literature is an arid business unless there is a response, and even negative responses can create an interesting classroom situation (as then the learner has to say why he or

she dislikes the text). Long emphasizes that the teaching of literature to non-native speakers should be to develop responses.

The attention being drawn in this thesis followed radical changes in the nature of language teaching and introduction of the newer methodologies aimed at inducing active communication in students. Language is now viewed as communication and the aim of teaching a language to enhance students’ communicative ability. “The secret of using literature in the foreign language

classroom is to avoid traditional classroom teaching roles” so that motivation can be

stimulated and a literary text can come alive for readers (Faber, 1998:83). Short and Candlin (1989: 179 -180) therefore emphasize that 'if literature is worth teaching qua literature, then it seems axiomatic that it is the response to literature itself which is

important.’

As a result, Senior (2005:71) states that “We need to have a clear pedagogical goal in mind: What precisely we want our students to learn from these materials.” Since the current goal of language teaching is to help students attain

‘Communicative Competence’ (Hymes 1972), literature can play an important role in

achieving this goal if effectively exploited by a creative teacher and planned towards fulfilling the objectives of language teaching.

As the researcher, it is important to explore teachers’ attitudes towards literature as a teaching material because, according to Borg (1991:1),

‘...teachers were not robots who simply implemented, in an unthinking

classroom – they made decisions, both before and while teaching, and these decisions thus became a new focus for educational researchers. The questions

being addressed now were not simply ‘what do teachers do?’ but also ‘what do they think?’, ‘what decisions do they make?’ and ‘why?’. The notion of

universally applicable teaching behaviors was viewed increasingly critical as the uniqueness of different educational contexts – and particularly the uniqueness of teachers and learners as human beings – was

acknowledged’(1991:1)

Consequently, Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) define an attitude as the general feeling (ranging from positive to negative) or evaluation (good/bad) a person has towards self, other people, objects and events. Teachers’ attitudes appear to lie at the heart of teaching and associated with the style of teaching; the belief and perception of teaching materials and methodologies. Many experts now contend that the materials used in the English classroom, and the way they are presented and dealt with by teachers, correlates directly with how well students are able to increase their language proficiency. And if research must be carried out to explore the teaching of literature in the EFL context, such research must first address the issue of teachers’ attitudes towards it because the success or failure of an educational material depends largely on the attitudes of teachers towards the material introduced or implemented. Though, incorporating a new material in an established educational system can pose a number of challenges to educators concerning the approach and may bring problems to language teachers. These challenges reflect teachers’ educational background, skills, beliefs, experiences, practices and attitudes towards the materials as in many tertiary institutions, the responsibility of choosing suitable materials for students’ learning objectives falls on the department and course facilitators.

Many previous studies carried out about the teaching of literature in the language classroom mainly focused on the roles and values of literature. As a result, little attention has been paid to teachers’ attitudes towards the material. Hence, the

issue of teachers’ attitudes towards literature has been grossly neglected. Meanwhile,

Gilroy (1995) conducted a study focusing on teachers’ attitude in using literature. The study used 20 native-English-speaking teachers of a variety of courses at the University of Edinburgh (Scotland), Institute for Applied Language Studies (IALS) to investigate into teachers’ attitudes to using literature in the language classroom. Using interview schedule, the results showed that while many of the teachers did not feel the need for a specialized course in literature for ESL, most would welcome more background knowledge to increase their confidence in handling literary texts. Another study related to the present was conducted by Chantha (2000), who

investigated Cambodian teachers’ perceptions and practices about using literary texts

in English in foreign language classrooms at the Department of English of the Institute of Foreign Languages at the Royal University of Phnom Penh, Cambodia. The results showed that all the teachers welcomed the inclusion of literature in language programs. Many of the teachers had some difficulties using literary texts with their students. They believed that the language of literary texts and the cultural knowledge embedded in them caused difficulties in using literary texts with their students.

So far, it seems no significant research has been conducted in this area to ascertain teacher’s attitudes towards use of literature in the Indonesian EFL. It is even difficult to cite as a reference what attitudes teachers hold towards the use of literature in Indonesia. Unless a research is carried out, the true place of literature in the Indonesian EFL will always be a matter of speculation. Therefore, the main objective of this study will be to explore and describe teachers’ attitudes towards use of literature in the EFL classroom. It is based on this objective that the study was designed to be a qualitative research using phenomenological approach.

B.Problem Statement

This study seeks to explore two main issues:

1. What are teachers’ attitudes towards the use of literature in the teaching of

English as a Foreign Language?

2. What are the factors that affect teachers’ use and non- use of literature in the EFL

classroom?

C.Objectives of the study

The objectives of the study are:

1. To explore teachers’ attitudes towards the use of literature in the teaching of

English as a Foreign Language.

2. To explore the factors that affect the teachers’ use and non- use of literature in the EFL classroom.

D.Benefits of the study

1. For curriculum developers and supervisors, the findings of this study will serve as an input to access the values and roles of literature inEFL curriculum.

2. For Teachers, the findings offer to clear some misconceptions about the use ofliterature in EFL classroom.

3. For Students and future researchers, as well asthose who want to undertake research in related areas, this study serves as a resource material. The study however is meant to be a modest contribution to the area of literature teaching, especially in local context, in which researches remain scarce.

commit to user

LITERATURE REVIEW

According to Byers and Unruh (2002:119), the purpose of the literature review in a qualitative study is to tell the reader how the findings fit into what is already known about the phenomena. Thus, a review of the literature is a comprehensive description as well as an evaluation of the evidence related to a given topic (Brockopp and Hastings-Tolsma 2003:122).In this case, the literature review serves as the theoretical underpinnings which build the foundations of understanding to conduct this research. It wasnot intended to argue existing findings or build hypotheses but to describe the core concepts in the study. The concepts covered include: the nature of literature, the nature of language and theories of language learning and teaching as well as the nature of attitude.

A . The Nature of Literature 1. Definition of Literature

The word “literature” is derived from the Latin word “lit (t) era” which

means “Letter”," originally “writing formed by letters". Letters are morphological

units that formed words. ‘Literature’ includes oral compositions such as “folk”,

“fables” ,“tales”, ”epics”, “ballads” and “songs”. These compositions are part of

what is known today as oral literature or (orature) produced mainly by transmitting words orally within a language community or culture.Literature exists in oral and written forms produced by words. Highlighting the importance of the words, Rollin (1989) defines literature as “words, words and words”.

commit to user

‘...My basic assumption is that anything which may be termed “literature”

must of necessity be involved in some fundamental, some essential way, word for certain. Words are the sine-quo non of my ration of what is literature. And more precisely, words grammatically strung together into something like oral narrative, manuscript, a scenario, or a playscript,

which means that the world series, cannot be read as “literature” even

though it is the subject of words and words are used to structure it (

baseball regulations, the manager’s daily line up etc? (Roger Rollin,

1989:3).

Rollin argues that literature should be ‘repeatable or recoverable’ that is permanent written texts, recorded utterance or transmitted orally. “The word literature, I wish to argue, should be used to designate a certain body of repeatable

or the recoverable act of communication” (Rollin, 1989:17-18). In a similar

perspective, Meyer (1997) argues that, “Most definitions of literature have been criteria definitions, definitions based on a list of criteria which all literary works

must meet”. As a result, Meyer provides some prototypical characteristics in

defining literature. Based on the prototypical characteristics, literary works: 1. are written texts,

2. are marked by careful use of language, including features such as creative metaphors, well-turned phrases, elegant syntax, rhyme, alliteration, meter, 3. are in a literary genre (poetry, prose fiction, or drama),

4. are read aesthetically,

5. are intended by the author to be read aesthetically,

6. contain many weak implicatures (are deliberately somewhat open to interpretation).

commit to user

from different perspectives. According to Baird (1969:203), literature is the use of language effectively in suitable condition. Rees (1973) describesliterature as a permanent expression in words of some thoughts or feelings in ideas about life and the world. Eagleton (1996) says literaturetransforms and intensifies ordinary language, deviates systematically from everyday speech. Eagleton states further

that “Literature was not pseudo-religion or psychology or sociology but a

particular organization of language”, because it has its own structures and devices

integrated into the language. Lazar (1993:5) definesliterature as those novels, short stories, plays and poems which are fictional and convey their messages by paying considerable attention to language which is rich and multi-layered. In the

context of this study, Lazar’s definition becomes more operational but it must be

noted that literature refers to any creative writing and works of the creative imagination,fiction and non-fictionin the form of poetry, drama and prose that uses language in special way. As can be seen in the definitions, language is central in every creative process to produce literature. Perhaps, the creative manipulation of language is literature.

Taylorexplains that “The roots of what we call literature are in everyday stories, dramas, rhymes, songs rhetoric and the flow of language in relationship”

(Taylor cited in Dhakal, 1994:1). The products of literature affect its readers and uses ‘language to open the five senses’ to gently move us into a vivid and heartfelt response. To many scholars, language and literature are not only inextricably connected, but thatliterature is actually a language. Talif (1995:15) arguesthat “…

commit to user

are not poles apart, but closely interconnected. Brook (1960:100 cited in Dhakal, 2001 ) also states that “Literature is wholly and inevitably rooted in language and it is not surprising to rediscover in literature certain features that are peculiar to and basic in language”

Literature is marked by unique use of language to paint worlds within our imaginations and to stir emotions that we did not know existed. It represents a language, a people and a culture. It tells about human experiences and deeds in a pleasurable, sometimes a satirical manner without losing its didactic values. Literature is a connect between the people and society. It satirizes human attitudes and actions, reveals the sordids, the pretences and the truth hidden from ordinary eyes. ‘Literature reflects the life of people’(Ngugi Wa Thiong’o 1986: 224).Bythis, students can draw lessons from the life of people while reading literature for pleasure or for academic purposes. This means literature can be a living through, not simply knowledge or information on how some people lived or events happened in the past. Students can also learn the language unconsciously when they read literary texts. Literature contains personal and communal issues including politics, culture, and emotional themes such as love, death and alienation etc. Basnett and Mounfold (1993) observe that literary texts are products that reflect different aspects of society. They are cultural documents which offer a deeper understanding of a country or countries.

Literature expresses culture, experience or event, while language is the medium used to express culture, experience or event. It can be said thatliterature

commit to user

language ‘is the material of literature as stone or bronze is of sculpture, paints of

pictures, or sounds of music’. Yadav ( 2011) remarksthat “Language is virtually

blood and bone of literature”. In the same vein, Sapir (1921) provides a

contrasting relationship between language and literature. Sapir states that

“LANGUAGES are more to us than systems of thought transference. They are

invisible garments that drape themselves about our spirit and give a predetermined form to all its symbolic expression. When the expression is of unusual

significance, we call it literature”. In its significance, literature beautifies and

enlivens language.

2. Literature in Language Teaching

It has been said that the accessibility of literature makes it an ideal vehicle for language teaching.And its use for the purpose of teaching language has been rooted in methodologies. As noted elsewhere, methodologies are as much a product of their times as educational systems, and rooted in the ideas of their time. Ideas have a habit of coming into and going out of fashion. Many new approaches are rediscoveries of old methods neglected but re-illuminated.Each method that emerges has a baggage of possibility and adds materials to the curriculum.

In this sense, Thakur (2003 cited in Abdullah et al, 2007) states that under the influence of the Formalists and Structuralists, much attention was given to the use of literature in teaching a language.fact, in the case of the teaching of the English language, English literature was viewed as synonymous with the teaching of the English language. But literature began to disappear from the language

commit to user

literature in language teaching adds no value to the needs of the language learner. According toLiddicoat and Crozet (2000)literature became more divorced from language teaching and learning when the communicative approach to language teaching was established in the 1970s.Erkaya (2005) therefore, provides a historical perspective of literature in language teaching:

In the nineteenth century, second/foreign languages were taught with the help of the grammar translation method. Students would translate literary texts from the second /foreign language into their native language .When this method was replaced by methods that emphasized structures and vocabulary, literature was no longer used. Thus, either the Direct Method or the Audio-lingual utilized literature to teach second/foreign languages. In the seventies, methods such as Community Language Learning, Suggestopedia, the Silent Way, Total Physical Response and the National Approach did not utilize the literature to teach second/foreign languages, too (Erkaya, 2005:2).

It can be seen that any time a teaching methodologywasintroduced; literature would either be accepted or rejected as a teaching material. Thus, innovation and change are broad- based issues in language curriculum. Change is defined as an ongoing, almost conscious process that involves reworking elements into a new relationship, while innovation is a willed intervention, which results in the development of ideas, practices, or beliefs that are fundamentally new. Curricular innovation is viewed in terms of a positive change over time. It is defined as a managed process of development whose principal products are teaching (and/or testing) material, methodological skills, and pedagogical values that are perceived as a new potential adopters.It is believed that the three dimensions of curriculum innovation-methodological skills, teaching materialsand pedagogical valuesinteract and a change in one affects the others.

commit to user

argues that the relationship is complex due to unsettled debate related to whether change in teaching materials and methodological skills leads to a change in pedagogical values or vice versa, or whether change in both occurs simultaneously. More than any other things, innovations must engage teachers in the role in more abstract tasks of developing their methodological skills and changing their ideas about what constitutes good teaching. And changes at one point of the innovation dimensions need to be accompanied by changes at other points of the dimension (Markee, 1997).

Figure 1:The three-dimensions of curriculum innovation (Markee 1997:54)

There is also a certain view that changes and innovations also affect beliefs and behaviors of the practitioners since there is a reciprocal interaction

Changes in

pedagogical values

Changes in

methodological

skills

Changes in teaching

commit to user

innovation, teachers must understand it and be part of it. Markee (1997:43) notes

that “ … if teachers support the innovation it will work, and if they resist, it will

not succeed. They can only adopt it if they understand it or are part of the

innovation planning process…. Besides, the teachers are part of and understand

very well the socio- cultural system they are working in ….”

In relation to teaching materials,Kennedy and Kennedy (1986) suggest that

‘Changes in ELT materials and methods require a change in teachers’ attitudes

and belief.’The emergence of the communicative language teaching since the

1980s has led to tremendous changes in teaching materials and pedagogical goals.The main goal of CLT in language teaching has been toattain communicative competence,promote use of authentic materials and authentic communication.

3. Issuesin UsingLiterature in Language Teaching

a. Literature as a Resource

Usingliterature as a resource should be distinguished fromliterature for study.When literature is discussed for the purpose of teaching a distinction needs to be drawn between literature for study and literature as a resource (Dhaka 2001).Povey (1976:163)views literature as a resource to be exploited rather than something to be studied in its right and for its own sake.

Literature as a resource focuses on literature as a medium or material for language teaching, while Literature for study refers to the teaching of literature as a subject. Maley (2001:183) believes that classroom activities may fall into one of

commit to user

those in which the text functions as a springboard for a variety of language activities, including discussion and writing. In the latter, the primary concern is to ensure students’ interactive engagement with literary texts as with any other authentic text, and with one another, in ways that would promote language development and further language learning.The literature for study examines the history and characteristics of literary movements; the social, political and historical background to a text; the biography of the author and its relevance to his or her writings; the genre of the text etc., (Lazar, 1993:35). It is the teaching of literature at its academic level, not for the purpose of teaching a language.

Literature as a resource is less academic though no less serious approach to the reading of literature (Carter and Long, 1991:3). It is the use ofliterary text to teach the relevant language items becausethat piece of text supplies chances for learning and stimulating interest in the language. The use of literature as a resource enhances the interaction between students and the texts, and among students to enhance learning of the language. Duff and Maley (2003:5)explain:

The primary aim of our approach is quite simply to use literary texts as a resource for stimulating language activities. This enables us to cut away the dead weight of critical commentary, metalanguage and explanation which have historically been associated with work on literary texts. What we are interested in is engaging students interactively with the text, with fellow students, and with the teacher in the performance of tasks involving literary text. In so doing students are obliged to pay careful attention to the text itself and to generate language in the process of completing the task. Any enhanced understanding or literary insight which students may acquire as spin-off this approach we regard as a bonus (Duff and Maley, 2003:5).

commit to user

resource for language teaching.”The advantages of using literature as a resource can be achieved when appropriate literary texts are selected to meet the age, interest, needs and goals of the students.The literary texts supply many linguistic opportunities for the language learner and allows the teacher to design activities

that are “based on material capable of stimulating greater interest and

involvement” than many other non-literary, informative texts. Literature provides wonderful materials for eliciting strong emotional responses from the students and is aimed to produce stimulating and enjoyable experiences in the classroom.

b. Advantages of Using Literature in the Language Classroom

According to Basnett and Grundy (1993), ‘literature is a high point of language usage, arguably it marks the greatest skills a language user can demonstrate. Anyone who wants to acquire a profound knowledge of language that goes beyond the utilitarian, will read literary texts in that language’. With literature, learners can develop performance in the language when exposed to the best uses of the language. Povey (1972) says that “Literature will increase all language skills because literature will extend linguistic knowledge by giving

evidence extensive and subtle usage and complex and exact syntax”.Collie and

Slatter (1987:10) provide the reason that drived their approach to teaching literature:

‘The overall aim, then, in our approach to the teaching of literature is to let

the student derive the benefits of communicative and other activities for language improvement within the context of suitable works of literature. Sharing literature with students is a spur to their acquiring these benefits, providing the teacher makes a balanced selection of activities and presents

commit to user

Van 2009 (cited in Bagherkazemi and Alemi, 2010) believes literature is advantageous in the EFL classroom because: a) It provides meaningful contexts; b) It involves a profound range of vocabulary, c) dialogues and prose; d) It appeals to the imagination and enhances creativity; e) It develops cultural awareness; f) It encourages critical thinking; g) It is in line with communicative language teaching principles.

Ur (1996: 201) lists the advantages of literature as a language teaching resource:

1. Literature is a very enjoyable resource to learn a language

2. Literature provides examples of different styles of writing, and also representations of various authentic uses of the language

3. Literature is a good resource for increasing word power 4. It encourages developing various reading skills in learners 5. It can be used as a springboard for exciting discussion or writing

6. It involves both emotion and intellect, which adds to the motivation and may contribute to the personal development of the student.

7. English literature (in general) is a part of the target culture, and therefore it has a value as part of the learners’ general education.

8. It encourages critical and creative thinking.

9. It enriches the students’ world knowledge.

10. It makes the students aware of various human situations and conflicts.

ForGajdusek (1988),Literature is advantageous in language teaching and learning because:

commit to user

2. It is a perfect means for constituting content for content-based classes. 3. It encourages talking.

4. It helps generate purposeful referential questions. 5. It provides for highly motivated small group work

6. It makes for dramatic vocabulary growth and the contextualized teaching of complex sentence grammar.

Akyel and Yalçin (1990:175) state that practitioners (teachers) use literature in their English teaching practices:

1. To broaden students' horizons by giving them a knowledge of the classics of literature,

2. To improve student's general cultural awareness;

3. To stimulate students' creative and literary imagination and to develop their appreciation of literature;

4. To introduce students to masterpieces in British and American literature as an educative experience, and to add to students' knowledge of the world at large.

Other language expertshave demonstrated the advantages of literature in language teaching. They believe literature should be incorporated in language

teaching as a complement to improve students’ language mastery. Knowing the

powerful role literature plays in language teaching, Weinrich (1983)warns that “to teach language without literature is an act of barbarism.” Language teachers shouldtherefore incorporate literature in languageteachingas it represents a

commit to user

There are reasons fora language teacher to use of literature in the EFL classroom.Collie and Slater (1987:3-6)provide four basic reasons why a language teacher uses literary texts with classes. These are:

1. Literature as Valuable Authentic Material

An authentic text is a stretch of real language, produced by a real speaker or writer for a real audience and designed to convey a real message of some sort (Morrow, 1977: 13). According to Bacon and Finnemann (1990),

“authentic materials are texts produced by native speakers for a non-pedagogical

purpose. Authentic language materials are spoken or written language materials that have been produced in the course of real communication and not specifically produced for the very purpose of language teaching (Nunan, 1999). They are ‘real

materials’ produced to fulfill some social purpose in the language community and

are not like the non-authentic texts that are specially designed for language learning purposes. Authentic materials include: travel timetables, city plans, forms, pamphlets, cartoons, advertisement, newspaper or magazine articles, literature, TV broadcast, video and internet. These materials provide samples of authentic language by helping to bring alive the real world into the EFL/ESL classroom. Savignon (2002) reveals that since the mid-sixties, the focus in linguistic theory has shifted from the study of language in isolation to the study of language in a social context, hence the need for authentic materials in the classrooms cannot be overemphasized.

commit to user

target language. By this, students are exposed to genuine uses of language in the classroom through complex themes.Duff and Maley (1990) assert that the authenticity and seriousness of literary texts, to which offer genuine samples of a very wide range of styles, registers and text-types dealing with non-trivial matters to which learners can bring a personal response from their own experience, make them ideal for language teaching. Breen (1985:61) provides four types of authenticity within the classroom and to the use of authentic texts:

1. Authenticity of the texts which we may use as input data for our students; 2. Authenticity of the learners’ own interpretations of such texts;

3. Authenticity of tasks conducive to language learning;

4. Authenticity of the actual social situation of the classroom language.

The concept of authenticity is central to CLT because learners are exposed to the same language as native speakers. Some of the principles of the methodology include:

1. Emphasis on purposeful and meaningful activities 2. The use of authentic elements

3. The use of the extra materials besides textbook activities

4. Avoiding from mechanical drills in pair or group work activities 5. Diversity of activities (Yang and Cheung, 2003: 17-18)

Hu (2002:95) addsthat “communicative language teaching puts the emphasis on a more authentic use of language for meaning and communication.”

commit to user

materials used aim to be as authentic as possible.” Authentic text increases

students’ motivation for learning since they give the learners the feeling that they

are learning the real language-the target language as it is used by the community that speaks it. With authentic materials, students are provided with opportunities

to engage in meaningful activities, to negotiate for meaning,’and express and

clarify their intentions, thoughts, opinions, etc., in a way to arrive at a mutual understanding.

Collie and Slatter (1987) therefore note that literature is

‘authentic’material. By that we simply mean that most works of literature are not

fashioned for the specific purpose of teaching a language.’According to Hall

(1999:11),‘Literature is a source of qualitatively demanding authentic language with an unmistakably individual human voice behind it; beyond the triviality of

invented dialogues and trendy realia’. Authentic materials are used in the

classroom because, outside the safe, controlled language learning environment, the learner will not encounter the artificial language of classroom but the real world and how language is really used in real contexts. Collie and Slatteralso emphasize;

‘...Learners are thus exposed to language that is as genuine and undistorted

as can be managed in the classroom context. Literature is a valuable

complement to such materials, especially once the initial ‘survival’ level

has been passed. In reading texts, students have also to cope with language intended for native speakers and thus they gain additional familiarity with many different linguistic uses, forms and conventions of the written mode: with irony, exposition, argument, narrations and so on (Collie&Slatter, 1987: 3)

commit to user

and predicaments to stimulate some kind of emotional response in them because written words of literature are living words that drive the reader to response. Through literature students interact with the real language and content.

In choosing authentic material for use in the classroom,Nuttall (1996:172) and Berato (2006) provide some criteria. They implore teachers to look for the following: suitability of content, exploitability, readability and presentation.

Suitability of Content:

Does the text interest the student? Is it relevant to the student’s needs?

Does it represent the type of material that the student will use outside of the classroom?

Exploitability:

Can the text be exploited for teaching purposes? For what purpose should the text be exploited?

What skills/strategies can be developed by exploiting the text?

Readability:

Is the text too easy/difficult for the student? Is it structurally too demanding/complex?

How much new vocabulary does it contain? Is it relevant?

Presentation:

Does it “look” authentic? Is it “attractive”?

Does it grab the student’s attention?

Does it make him want to read more?

commit to user 2. giving authentic cultural information; 3. exposing students to real language; 4. relating more closely to students’ needs;

5. supporting a more creative approach to teaching.

Martinez (2002)provides an elaborate list of the advantages and disadvantages of authentic reading materials in the classroom:

a. Advantages

1. Students are exposed to real discourse, as in videos of interviews with famous people where intermediate students listen for gist.

2. Authentic materials keep students informed about what is happening in the world, so they have an intrinsic educational value.

3. Textbooks often do not include incidental or improper English.

4. They can produce a sense of achievement, e.g., a brochure on England given to students to plan a 4-day visit.

5. The same piece of material can be used under different circumstances if the task is different.

6. Language change is reflected in the materials so that students and teachers can keep abreast of such changes.

7. Reading texts are ideal to teach/practice mini-skills such as scanning,

8. Books, articles, newspapers, and so on contain a wide variety of text types, language styles not easily found in conventional teaching materials.

commit to user

topics of interest to learners, especially if students are given the chance to have a say about the topics or kinds of authentic materials to be used in class.

b. Disadvantages

1. They may be too culturally biased, so unnecessarily difficult to understand outside the language community.

2. The vocabulary might not be relevant to the student's immediate needs. 3. Too many structures are mixed so lower levels have a hard time decoding the

texts.

4. Special preparation is necessary which can be time consuming. 5. With listening: too many different accents.

6. The material can become outdated easily, e.g. news.

2. Literature for Cultural Enrichment

Collie and Slatter alsostate that using literature in the language classroom enhances cultural enrichment. When students are exposed to literature they would be able to grasp new information about the culture of the language they are studying. Teaching literature within a cultural model enables students to understand and appreciate cultures and ideologies different from their own and to come to perceive tradition of thought, feeling and artistic form within the heritage the literature of such culture endows (Carter and Long 1991: 2).Literature serves as a medium to transmit the culture of the people who speak the language in which it is written (Valdes, 1986). The ideal way to deepen understanding of life in the country where the language is spoken is through its literature.Literature can

commit to user

studying. The cultural enrichment of literature can be seen from the various social backgrounds that show the customs, feelings and the daily lives of the people. The reader involved in the literary work can understand different cultural aspects of the people. Literature is a window into another culture and for many people the

ideal way to learn about other people’s culture is to read the literature.Povey sees

‘Literature as a link towards that culture which sustains the expressions of any language. American literature will open up the culture of this country to a foreign

student in a manner analogous to the extension of the native speaker’s own

awareness of his own culture’. By reading literature associated with a particular

language studentscan have an insight into the culture, and gain knowledge about the economic, religious and political views of a country. It also enables them to see very quickly that meanings are socially constructed in complex ways. Thus, teachers can develop activities to enable students to consider different points of view, develop multicultural literacies, and how to describe and explain meanings using literary texts.

3. Literature for Language Enrichment

Language enrichment is one benefit often sought through literature (Collie and Slatter 1987:4). The reason is that language is the literary medium, literature is made of language and students enrich their language knowledge through literature.Clandsfield believes literature is beneficial for the language enrichment

because “ Literature encourages interactions in all its ramifications”. Literary texts

commit to user

they meet language in use. Nissani and Lohani (1996) state that “the best road to language proficiency lies in its literature; nothing is so emotionally gripping so that it is remembered for a long time.” Short and Candlin (2000) suggest that an integrated language and literature curriculum will help the students improve their language skills such as reading and understanding complex texts and their command of language.In achieving this, the language teacher must be challenged to design stimulating activities that can motivate learners.

4. Literature for Personal Involvement

Literature is a helpful material to foster the personal involvement in students. When a novel, play or short story is explored over a period of time, the

result is that the reader begins to ‘inhabit’ the text’(Collie and Slatter, 1987).

Literature provides not only a genuine context for communication; it also gives pleasure by engaging the emotions. If a reader wants to find out what happens next in a text, if it seems important to him personally, he will read on despite linguistic difficulties. Oftentimes, the reader is eager to find what happens as events unfold; he may feel close to certain characters and shares their emotional experiences and responses. Hence, understanding the meaning of lexical items or phrases becomes less significant than pursuing the development of the story. The

language becomes ‘transparent’-the story summons the whole person into its own

commit to user

Carter and Long (1991:2-9) describe three main approaches of teaching literature. These approaches are also known as models of teaching literature in the language classroom.

1. The Cultural Model

Sage (1987) argues that the major value of literature is its cultural content. The cultural model is a means of transmitting ideas and feelings of the target language, sometimes universal as a way in which the students learn a variety of words and expressions. Carter and Long emphasize that literature expresses the most significant ideas and sentiments of human beings and teaching literature represents a means by which students can be put in touch with a range of expressions-often of universal value and validity- over a historical period or periods (Carter and Long, 1991:2).

2. The Language Model

The language model focuses on the teaching of literature for language development (i.e. Language skills and components taught in the classroom). Most educationists are of the view that the language of the ESL/EFL classroom is too rigid, too textbookish, too artificial, and too contrived and so the language model helps expose students to the more subtle and varied creative uses of the language. The language model aims to be learner-centered or activity-based and to proceed with particular attention to the way language is used. Language-based approaches are less concerned with the literary text as a product but more concerned with the processes of reading (Carter and Long, 1991 :9). Clandfield explains:

commit to user

through a text, they pay attention to the way language is used. They come to grips with the meaning and increase their general awareness of English. Within this model of studying literature, the teacher can choose to focus on general grammar and vocabulary or use stylistic analysis. Stylistic analysis involves the close study of the linguistic features of the text to enable students to make meaningful interpretations of the text-it aims to help learners read and study literature more competently (Clandfield, 2005: 2).

Language approach lends well to the repertoire of strategies used in language teaching-Cloze procedure, prediction exercises, jumbled sentences, summary writing, creative writing and role playwhich form part of the repertoire of EFL activities used by teachers to deconstruct literary texts in order to serve specific linguistic goals (Savvidou 2005). Some scholars have criticized the manipulation of literature to serve the purposes of language teaching because it can make literature mechanistic, though, proponents of the language model contend that literature and language should complement each other and that language should be treated as mother to this child called literature.

3. The Personal Growth Model

This personal growth model is more student-centered and the overall aim is to motivate students to read and relate the themes depicted in a literary text to their personal experiences. It serves as a bridge to the cultural model and language model by focusing on a particular use of language in a text, as well as placing it in a specific cultural context. Students are encouraged to express their opinions, feelings, and make connections between their own personal and cultural experiences and to those expressed in the text. Through literature, “Students are not only invited to express their responses in talk and writing, but also through

commit to user

filmmaking” (Rogers, 2006: 50). The teacher’s role is to implant in his students a

“lasting pleasure in reading and a deep satisfaction in a continuing growth of

understanding”. Students can develop knowledge of ideas and language-content

formal schemata-through different themes and topics.

The three models differ in terms of their focus on the text. For example, there is text as cultural artifact, text as used to focus on grammatical and structural analysis and text as the stimulus for personal growth activities. Duff and Maley (1990) state that the main reasons for integrating these elements are linguistic, methodological and motivational. Linguistically, by using a wide range of authentic texts we introduce learners to a variety of types and difficulties of the English language. Methodologically, literary discourse sensitizes readers to the processes of reading e.g. the use of schema, strategies for intensive and extensive reading etc, and Motivationally, literary texts prioritize the enjoyment of reading. Applebee (1992: 10) draws a similar conclusion that ‘The three models represent long-standing traditions in the English language arts: one was student centered,

emphasizing ‘personal growth’; one was content centered, emphasizing the

preservation of a cultural heritage; and one was skill centered, emphasizing the

development of language competencies’.

e.Selecting Literary Text for EFL Classroom

The key to successfuluse of literature in the EFL classroom depends largely on the literary works selected for students. What sort of literature is suitable for use with language learners? What criteria should guide teachers in

commit to user

play in text selection for the students. Besides, what qualities should a literary text possessin order to be included in language teaching? Howard and Major (2004) propose that teaching materials should:

1. Be contextual

2. Stimulate interaction and be generative in terms of language 3. Encourage learners to develop learning skills and strategies 4. Allow for a focused on form as well as function

5. Offer opportunities for integrated language use 6. Be authentic

7. Link to each other to develop a progression of skills, understanding and language terms

8. Be attractive

9. Have appropriate instructions 10. Be flexible

Apart from the above characteristics, literature is also considered a good and a convenient teaching material because of its mobility. McRae (in Pulverness 2007:5) remarks that the “secret formula”of a literary text is that “literature reaches the parts that other texts can’t reach”.

Maley (2001:184) regards text selection as a ‘crucial factor’ in making

literature a resource for linguistic development, personal enrichment and cultural appreciation. Text selection is an important first step to successful use of any kind of representational materials and teachers should be aware of the implication of

commit to user

culturally difficult will have fewer benefits to the teacher and students. Collie and Slatter (1987: 6)stressthe importance of selecting appropriate texts for EFL class in the following:

One primary factor to consider is, we suggest, whether a particular work is able to stimulate the kind of personal involvement we have just described/ by arousing the learners’ interest and provoking strong, positive reactions

from them .If it is “meaningful and enjoyable” reading is more likely to

have a lasting and beneficial effect upon the learners 'linguistic and

cultural knowledge”. The key to success in using literature in the EFL

class rests clearly on the selection of appropriate texts (Collie and Slatter, 1987: 6)

They assert:

It is important to choose books, therefore, which are relevant to the life experiences , emotions, or dreams of the learner. Language difficulty has, of course, to be considered as well. Because they have both a linguistic and a cultural gap to bridge, foreign students may not be able to identify with or enjoy a text which they perceive as being fraught with difficulty every step of the way. In the absence of curriculum or exam constraints, it

is much better to choose a work that is not too much above the students’

normal reading proficiency (Collie and Slatter, 1987:6) According to Moody (1991):

In general, students will most easily be attracted to works of literature in which they can quickly recognize a familiar background, preferably with characters somewhat similar to themselves or other people they know. Generally speaking , the teacher will be well advised to apply the principle

of working from ‘the known to the unknown’, and , until he has

established confident relations with his students, introduce them to literature which does not make excessive demands on their ability to picture what they read (Moody, 1991:18)

Practitioners should consider students’ needs, interests, cultural background, language level and meaningfulness inselecting texts for classroom activities. It is also necessary to provide background information and previewing content to maximize comprehension of literary texts (Gatbonton and Tucker 1971). Sage

commit to user

cultural specific details which may limit their ability to understand a text. While noting the level of students, teachers can simplify the text or make use of simplified version. Moody (1971:15)suggests that, ‘sincelearners’capacities can be graded all the works of literature in the world could be graded in terms of their simplicity or complexity, their remoteness or their accessibility’.

B. The Nature of Language

1. Definition of Language

Finocchario (1964:8) defines language as a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols which permit all people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or interact. Kandel (2000) says language as a system of conventional spoken or written symbols by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture, communicate. As a result, language is human specific and perhaps the most distinguishing feature between Homo sapiens and other animals. Further, research has shown that language is not only universal among humans, but also has universal properties that are unique to the language of human beings. David Crystal (2001) explains that:

A language is a system of visual, auditory, or tactile symbols of communication and the rules used to manipulate them. Language is considered to be an exclusively human mode of communication; although other animals make use of quite sophisticated communicative systems, none of these are known to make use of all of the properties that linguists use to define language.

Given the above, language fulfills several human functions. It provides a means of communicating and socializing with other human beings, and it enables the

commit to user

Halliday (1970) therefore elaborated a powerful theory of the functions of language, which complements Hymes's view of communicative competence for many writers on communicative language teaching. These functions are:

1. The instrumental function: using language to get things;

2. The regulatory function: using language to control the behavior of others; 3. The interactional function: using language to create interaction with others; 4. The personal function: using language to express personal feelings and

meanings;

5. The heuristic function: using language to learn and to discover;

6. The imaginative function: using language to create a world of the imagination;

7. The representational function: using language to communicate information. These seven basic function language performs for children learning their first language, Halliday (1977)also claims are necessary for learning the adult language system and are useful in explaining stages of language development. At the level of language theory, communicative language teaching has a rich, if somewhat eclectic,theoretical base. Some of the characteristics of communicative view of language are:

a. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.

b. The primary function of language is for interaction and communication. c. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses.

perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id

commit to user

109

Third, the research focuses on nine teachers in one English department. The findings may not be absolute in terms of generalization, so it may ideal and beneficial to replicate this study in other places with different populations since it may produce different results. Other research methodologies and approaches can be employed in future research.

Fourth, the classroom observations did not yield much data because the teachers did not teach literature on the various occasions they were observed. The researcher was only left with the interview data to work on. So, the objectives of conducting observations were not accomplished in this study.

Despite the weaknesses, the researcher believes that the conclusions made in this research are credible and reflect the teachers’ attitudes towards literature and the factors that affect teachers use and non-use of literature in the language classroom, as they are already backed up with sufficient data obtained from the participants.

commit to user

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

This fifth chapter presents the conclusion and suggestion derived from the results of the research.

A. CONCLUSION

1. The teachers who were participants of this research understand what

constitutes literature and its values in language teaching process. They believe literature is a valuable resource for language teaching and offers linguistic, cultural and social values. They also believe that literature enriches students’ vocabulary development, in knowing about words (diction) that are not used in everyday expressions, in internalizing the structure and grammar of the language and getting feelings of the language. Students can also appreciate creative message and understand

about other people’s culture by reading literary texts. In terms of attitude,

the teachers showed positive attitudes towards literature as a pedagogical material for teaching in EFL. However, it can be concluded that the teachers have not enthusiastically embraced literature for the purpose of teaching English. A reflection of this can be seen from the outcome of the classroom observations in which they failed to teach literature in several occasions they were observed.

2. The majority of the teachers have preference for prose than other genres.

3. The teachers favored the use of foreign literature over local literature. By

perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id

commit to user

111

teaching process and promotion of foreign literature (British and American literatures) written by native speakers as the model for teaching process.

4. The factors that affect the use and non-use of literature in the EFL

classroom include: attitude teachers’ attitude that literature is difficult to

teach, teachers’ lack of confidence to teach literature, and students’ lack

of motivation.

5. Internal and external training are important and recommened to equip

teachers with the teaching methodologies and approaches to use literature and to increase their confidence to explore the potentials of literature in teaching English.

B. Suggestion

The findings of this study suggest for further investigations to critically explore issues related to this study. Future researchers could investigate the implementation of literature in the EFL classroom and students’ attitudes towards the use of literature in the Indonesian EFL context. Bigger samples might be taken and other techniques applied. It could be beneficial to replicate this study in other English departments and universities with different populations since it might produce different results.This kind of research can be extended to teachers in the primary and secondary schools in Indonesia. Classroom observations where teachers can willing to teach literature and be observed would undoubtedly provide more insights about the practices and challenges encountered by the teachers in teaching literature.

commit to user

For these reasons, this research is expected to be useful for institutions, teachers, students as well as future researchers:

1. For educational institutions

Educational institutions should not be rigid on teachers rather to encourage them to explore different teaching materials during teaching process. By so doing, teachers can innovate effective materials and

techniques to enhance students’ language skills and achieve the objective

of language teaching.Teachers should be allowed to experiment with different teaching materials both authentic and non-authentic. A subject like English requires teachers to try out different materials. Providing resources and trainings will help teachers cope with the challenges and also be equipped with the skills and methodologies to handle a each

material. Great attention should be paid to teachers’ attitudes towards

teaching materials.

2. For Teachers

Teachers should always include authentic materials such as literature and other resources as complement to conventional textbooks.

Effective exploration of such materials will definitely increase students’

linguistic, communicative and cultural knowledge. The role of the language teacher should be to provide learners with a range of opportunities to experience the use of language in different socio-cultural contexts and to use language in different interactional patterns which would make them successful communicators in the target language.

perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id

commit to user

113

However, teachers should consider the new perspectives in the teaching of literature in the EFL context as proposed by Lin and Guey (2004) that;

1. Literature and language teaching should be linked and integrated to be mutually reinforcing.

2. Language should be an essential foundation for understanding literature: the focus should be on texts.

3. The students should be made more sensitive to the processes involved in reading literary texts.

4. Learning and teaching should be process-oriented

5. The process of learning should be task-based, and learner-centered. These perspectives support the integration and teaching of literature in the EFL classroom and the views of the researcher innovative. On critical examinations, these suggestions are broadly in line with the goal of modern language teaching and learning as literature can serve as a complement to other teaching materials and provides opportunities for language teachers to expand students’ awareness of language by exposing them to many varieties of English and stimulating their language acquisition.

3. For Students and future researchers

Students should be reminded that mastering English and be able to use it for communicative purposes entails a lot of hardwork. Knowing the grammar of a language is only a part of it. Reading literature both in class

commit to user

and at home will enhance their linguistic, communicative and cultural competences.They should explore and use different authentic materials as often as possible if they want to be functional users of English. As Afolayan (1972: 27) points out, ‘it is unthinkable that a second language should be taught alone in the pure state as it were. Language is a scheme, a mould whose substance is either literature or civilization’. Future researchers are challenged to embrace the odds and investigate morecritical issues related to the teaching of literature in Indonesia. This study serves a resourceful material to researchers, students, teachers and readers.