Hidden transcript in Bob Marley`s and The Black Brothers` selective song lyrics as a Counter Power Domination.

i ABSTRACT

Iriano Yedijah Petrus Awom (2015). Hidden Transcript in Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' Selective Song Lyrics as a Counter Power Domination.

Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program, Sanata Dharma University.

Both Bob Marley and The Black Brothers are the embodiment of popular music icons and the symbol of pride, dignity and freedom for their respective social groups. Their songs promote, advocate, and motivate their fellow brothers and sisters who have been marginalized in the hegemonic world under power domination. In order to penetrate this hegemonic public sphere where many times rejection and even harsh treatment are the consequences, they had to play safe in the subversive mode through the so-called hidden transcript. This study views that in resisting the tyranny, Bob Marley and Black Brothers employ their music and songs as their vehicle to carry their protests. However, as their music tend to be consumed for leisure and pleasure, people start to loose the cognitive part of it which is to grasp the meaning and to intellectualize the message that its lyric carries.

This study uses cognitive poetic in making an in-depth analysis of Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' songs. In attempt to unveil the hidden message in the song, this study employs James Scott's concept of hidden transcript which consists of elements which become the rhetoric in Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' lyrics.

This study shows that Bob Marley and The Black Brothers tend to use metaphoric expression which is the main point in cognitive poetic analysis. This study also points out that Bob Marley and The Black Brothers make use of that elements of hidden transcript as a form of passive resistance. Their effort aims to diagnose problems, offer problem solution and call for action.

Understanding Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' hidden transcript is considered important since they contain significant message into which people can see and understand the phenomenon of their socio-political history. Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' peaceful resistance is a good example and may give a spirit that can bring salvation and freedom to their respective people. The understanding of hidden transcript in Bob Marley and The Black Brother can also raise people's awareness to stand up for the truth and for their right, regardless of the circumstances. Hopefully this study will enrich literary study and trigger further research on Bob Marley's and, especially The Black Brothers' songs.

ii ABSTRAK

Iriano Yedijah Petrus Awom (2015). Hidden Transcript in Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' Selective Song Lyrics as a Counter Power Domination.

Yogyakarta: Magister Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pasca Sarjana, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Baik Bob Marley dan Black Brothers merupakan perpaduan dari ikon popular musik dan simbol kebanggaan, harkat, dan kebebasan bagi kelompok masyarakatnya. Lagu-lagu mereka memperkenalkan, mengadvokasi, dan memotivasi saudara-saudari mereka yang termarginalkan dalam dunia hegemoni di bawah dominasi kekuasaan. Agar bisa menembus dunia hegemoni tersebut di mana seringkali terjadi penolakan dan bahkan penindasan sebagai konsekuensinya, mereka harus berlaku hati-hati dalam bentuk subversif melalui apa yaang disebut transkip tersembunti (hidden transript). Studi ini melihat bahwa dalam menentang tirani, baik Bob Marley dan Black Brothers menggunakan musik dan lagu sebagai kendaraan dalam memuat protes dan kritik. Namun, sebagaimana musik lebih cenderung dikonsumsi untuk tujuan mengisi waktu luang dan bersenang-senang semata, maka orang mulai kehilangan sisi kognitif untuk dapat memahami arti dan mengintelektualisasikan pesan yang dibawa dalam lirik-liriknya.

Studi ini menggunakan analisa kognisi puitis dalam membuat analisa yang mendalam terhadap lagu-lagu Bob Marley dan Black Brothers. Dalam usaha untuk mengungkap pesan-pesan tersembunyi di dalam lagu-lagu itu, studi ini menggunakan konsep dari James Scott yang mencakup elemen-elemen yang menjadi retorika dalam lirik-lirik lagu Bob Marley dan Black Brothers.

Studi ini menunjukkan bahwa Bob Marley dan Black Brothers cenderung menggunakan ekspresi-ekspresi metaporis yang menjadi poin utama dalam analisa cognisi sastra. Studi ini juga menunjukkan bahwa Bob Marley dan Black Brothers menggunakan elemen-elemen transkrip tersembunyi sebagai bentuk perlawanan pasif. Usaha mereka bertujuan mendiagnosa permasalahan, menawarkan solusi, dan meyerukan aksi.

Memahami transkip-transkrip tersembunyi dari Bob Marley dan Black Brothers dianggap hal yang penting karena mereka memuat pesan-pesan signifikan dalam mana orang dapat melihat dan memahami fenomena sejarah sosio-politik mereka. Perlawanan damai Bob Marley dan Black Brothers merupakan suatu contoh baik dan dapat memberi motivasi yang membawa penyelamatan dan kebebasan bagi masyarakatnya. Memahami transkrip-transkrip tersembunyi dalam lagu-lagu Bob Marley dan Black Brothers dapat juga membangkitkan kesadaran bahwa apapun kondisinya, orang harus bisa berdiri menyuarakan kebenaran dan haknya. Diharapkan studi ini dapat memperkaya kajian sastra dan memicu penelitian lebih jauh terhadap lagu-lagu Bob Marley, terutama Black Brothers.

i

Hidden Transcript in Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' Selective Song Lyrics as a Counter Power Domination

A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree ofMagister Humaniora

in English Language Studies

by

Iriano Yedijah Petrus Awom 116332007

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A. (Hons)., Ph.D Thesis Advisor

iii

A THESIS

Hidden Transcript in Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' Selective Song Lyrics as a Counter Power Domination

by

Iriano Yedijah Petrus Awom Student Number 116332007

was defended in front of the Thesis Committee and declared acceptable

Thesis Committee

Chairperson : Sri Mulyani, M.A., Ph.D. ____________

Secretary : Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A (Hons)., Ph.D ____________

Member : Paulus Sarwoto, M.A., Ph.D. ____________

Member : Mutiara Andalas, S.J., S.TD. ____________

Yogyakarta, 23 Februari 2015 The Graduate Program Director Sanata Dharma University

iv

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all the ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if he took somebody else's idea, phrase, or sentence without proper reference.

Yogyakarta, 23 Februari 2015

v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : Iriano Yedijah Petrus Awom

Nomor mahasiswa : 116332007

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

Hidden Transcript in Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' Selective Song Lyrics as a Counter Power Domination

Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan,

mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Pada tanggal: 23 February 2015

vi

ACKNOWLEDMENTS

My first very deep gratitude goes to The Almighty and The Most High, Jesus Christ who has allowed me to go this far. My next great gratitude goes to all lecturers in the English Language Studies Department, especially Dr. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A. (Hons)., Romo Patricius Mutiara Andalas, S.J., S.TD. and the late Prof. Dr. Bakdi Soemanto for their professional support throughout my study.

My special love goes to my dearest family: Kamam who supported me spiritually and financially; my Awin who stared at me from heaven above, I love you mom; also to my dearest wife, Silva and my lovely son, David for your patience and love; to my three dearest sisters, Rina, Frida and Samy, I love you so much.

I would also thank my friends Rosemary Kesauly and Andrew Thren for supporting me with discussion and ideas, God bless.

Kasumasa nabor,

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE... i

APPROVAL PAGE ... ii

ACCEPTANCE PAGE... iii

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY... iv

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PUBLIKASI... v

ACKNOWLEDMENTS ... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vii

ABSTRACT... ix

ABSTRAK ... x

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ... 1

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW... 7

1. Review of Related Studies ... 7

2. Review of Jamaica and Papua Socio Political History ... 12

2.1. The Jamaican Socio-Political History... 12

2.2. The Papuan Socio-political History ... 16

3. Theoretical Concepts... 24

3.1. Cognitive Poetics ... 24

3.2. Conceptual Metaphor ... 26

3.3. Hidden Transcript... 31

3.4. Memoria Passionis ... 34

4. Theoretical Framework ... 34

CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW INTO THE REALM OF BOB MARLEY AND THE BLACK BROTHERS’ CRAFTS- CONTENT ANALYSIS ... 38

1. Bob Marley's Music ... 39

1.1. Theme in Bob Marley's songs ... 42

1.2. Bob Marley's Lyrical Style... 46

1.2.1. Rasta Language ... 47

1.2.2. Jamaican Grounded Metaphor ... 49

1.2.3. Spiritual Grounded Metaphor (Rasta and Biblical Reference) ... 54

1.3. Bob Marley's Lyrical Form ... 59

2. The Black Brothers' Music... 61

2.1. Theme in The Black Brothers’ songs... 64

2.2. The Black Brothers' Lyrical Style ... 68

2.2.1. Romantic Grounded Metaphors ... 69

2.2.2. Papua Grounded Metaphor ... 74

2.3. The Black Brothers' Lyrical Forms ... 77

viii

CHAPTER 4: THE HIDDEN TRANSCRIPT IN BOB MARLEY’S AND THE

BLACK BROTHERS’ SONGS... 82

1. The Socio-Political Context of Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' Songs 83 2. Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' Music and Song as Counter-Dominant Power Alternative... 84

3. Bob Marley and The Black Black Brothers’ Songs as the Language of Resistance... 87

4. The Analysis of Hidden Transcript in Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' Songs ... 91

4.1. The First Element of Hidden Transcript: Metaphor ... 92

4.1.1. Metaphoric Depiction of Poverty in Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' Songs ... 94

4.1.2. Metaphoric Depiction of Racism in Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' Songs ... 102

4.1.3. Metaphoric Depiction of Violence in Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' Songs ... 104

4.1.4. Metaphoric Depiction of Prison in Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' Songs ... 109

4.2. The Second Element of Hidden Transcript: Anonymity ...113

4.2.1. The Sender Anonymity ...114

4.2.2. The Receiver Anonymity ...115

4.2.3. The Relationship Anonymity ... 121

4.3. The Third Element of Hidden Transcript: Euphemism ... 123

4.3.1. Euphemism as Sweet Talking ... 125

4.3.2. Euphemism as Deception... 129

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION... 134

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 142

APPENDICES ... 146

APPENDIX 1 List of Bob Marley’s and the Black Brothers’ Albums and Songs ... 146

APPENDIX 2 Bob Marley's Songs Selected for Analysis... 152

ix ABSTRACT

Iriano Yedijah Petrus Awom (2015). Hidden Transcript in Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' Selective Song Lyrics as a Counter Power Domination.

Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program, Sanata Dharma University.

Both Bob Marley and The Black Brothers are the embodiment of popular music icons and the symbol of pride, dignity and freedom for their respective social groups. Their songs promote, advocate, and motivate their fellow brothers and sisters who have been marginalized in the hegemonic world under power domination. In order to penetrate this hegemonic public sphere where many times rejection and even harsh treatment are the consequences, they had to play safe in the subversive mode through the so-called hidden transcript. This study views that in resisting the tyranny, Bob Marley and Black Brothers employ their music and songs as their vehicle to carry their protests. However, as their music tend to be consumed for leisure and pleasure, people start to loose the cognitive part of it which is to grasp the meaning and to intellectualize the message that its lyric carries.

This study uses cognitive poetic in making an in-depth analysis of Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' songs. In attempt to unveil the hidden message in the song, this study employs James Scott's concept of hidden transcript which consists of elements which become the rhetoric in Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' lyrics.

This study shows that Bob Marley and The Black Brothers tend to use metaphoric expression which is the main point in cognitive poetic analysis. This study also points out that Bob Marley and The Black Brothers make use of that elements of hidden transcript as a form of passive resistance. Their effort aims to diagnose problems, offer problem solution and call for action.

Understanding Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' hidden transcript is considered important since they contain significant message into which people can see and understand the phenomenon of their socio-political history. Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' peaceful resistance is a good example and may give a spirit that can bring salvation and freedom to their respective people. The understanding of hidden transcript in Bob Marley and The Black Brother can also raise people's awareness to stand up for the truth and for their right, regardless of the circumstances. Hopefully this study will enrich literary study and trigger further research on Bob Marley's and, especially The Black Brothers' songs.

x ABSTRAK

Iriano Yedijah Petrus Awom (2015). Hidden Transcript in Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' Selective Song Lyrics as a Counter Power Domination.

Yogyakarta: Magister Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pasca Sarjana, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Baik Bob Marley dan Black Brothers merupakan perpaduan dari ikon popular musik dan simbol kebanggaan, harkat, dan kebebasan bagi kelompok masyarakatnya. Lagu-lagu mereka memperkenalkan, mengadvokasi, dan memotivasi saudara-saudari mereka yang termarginalkan dalam dunia hegemoni di bawah dominasi kekuasaan. Agar bisa menembus dunia hegemoni tersebut di mana seringkali terjadi penolakan dan bahkan penindasan sebagai konsekuensinya, mereka harus berlaku hati-hati dalam bentuk subversif melalui apa yaang disebut transkip tersembunti (hidden transript). Studi ini melihat bahwa dalam menentang tirani, baik Bob Marley dan Black Brothers menggunakan musik dan lagu sebagai kendaraan dalam memuat protes dan kritik. Namun, sebagaimana musik lebih cenderung dikonsumsi untuk tujuan mengisi waktu luang dan bersenang-senang semata, maka orang mulai kehilangan sisi kognitif untuk dapat memahami arti dan mengintelektualisasikan pesan yang dibawa dalam lirik-liriknya.

Studi ini menggunakan analisa kognisi puitis dalam membuat analisa yang mendalam terhadap lagu-lagu Bob Marley dan Black Brothers. Dalam usaha untuk mengungkap pesan-pesan tersembunyi di dalam lagu-lagu itu, studi ini menggunakan konsep dari James Scott yang mencakup elemen-elemen yang menjadi retorika dalam lirik-lirik lagu Bob Marley dan Black Brothers.

Studi ini menunjukkan bahwa Bob Marley dan Black Brothers cenderung menggunakan ekspresi-ekspresi metaporis yang menjadi poin utama dalam analisa cognisi sastra. Studi ini juga menunjukkan bahwa Bob Marley dan Black Brothers menggunakan elemen-elemen transkrip tersembunyi sebagai bentuk perlawanan pasif. Usaha mereka bertujuan mendiagnosa permasalahan, menawarkan solusi, dan meyerukan aksi.

Memahami transkip-transkrip tersembunyi dari Bob Marley dan Black Brothers dianggap hal yang penting karena mereka memuat pesan-pesan signifikan dalam mana orang dapat melihat dan memahami fenomena sejarah sosio-politik mereka. Perlawanan damai Bob Marley dan Black Brothers merupakan suatu contoh baik dan dapat memberi motivasi yang membawa penyelamatan dan kebebasan bagi masyarakatnya. Memahami transkrip-transkrip tersembunyi dalam lagu-lagu Bob Marley dan Black Brothers dapat juga membangkitkan kesadaran bahwa apapun kondisinya, orang harus bisa berdiri menyuarakan kebenaran dan haknya. Diharapkan studi ini dapat memperkaya kajian sastra dan memicu penelitian lebih jauh terhadap lagu-lagu Bob Marley, terutama Black Brothers.

CHAPTER

1

INTRODUCTION

In Papua there is a music community named "KORK" (Komunitas Rasta Kribo) which is mainly inspired by the two most influencial popular music icons, Bob Marley and The Black Brothers. The community reflects the passion of the youth in the island to favor reggae music which was popularized by the legendary Jamaican artist Bob Marley and preserves the legacy of the island's legendary pop band The Black Brothers. Emerging from the spirit of the Black power movements, Bob Marley gives a sense of affinity and engagement to the people of Papua especially the youth that his music and message represent the spirit of freedom and resistance against injustice that have been experienced by them for so long. The Papuan youth began to equate Bob Marley to Black Brothers, as they are both claimed as the representation of the existence of Papuans who have been marginalized among their Indonesian brothers and sisters. The community gives a picture of how Bob Marley and Black Brothers, who happened to equally emerge from the marginalized Black society and shared similar ideology, have become their main patrons for dignity and pride among the people.

Bob Marley, a third world superstar has rocked the world with Jamaican new distinctive genre of music, called "reggae." His music merges with the socio-religious movement of Rastafarianism, a religion that sprung up in Jamaica in 1930s which believe Ethiopian Emperor, Haile Selassie I or Rastafari Makonnen as the true messiah. This helped to boost the post-colonial spirit that emerged in the late 1960s. Coming from the slums of Kingston, Jamaica, reggae

was a form of response to the environment the residents lived. Reggae became the music of the "sufferah" (sufferer). In this way it becomes a music of protest which also deals with nature and the universe.

Reggae became known worldwide mostly through Bob Marley, despite the fact that there were some other Jamaican artists and bands who had come before him like Desmond Dekker, Jimmy Cliff, Toots and Maytals, and Skatalites. Under the label of Island Records owned by a British Jamaican producer Chris Blackwell, Bob Marley managed to penetrate the international audience in the 1970s. Gaining his superstardom did not block Marley from singing about his Rastafarian beliefs, Jamaica's economic and social problems which became the common themes in reggae. It is through reggae that Bob Marley became the most prominent musician in voicing those problems.

As his popularity grows, his music and messages began to influence other artists and bands such as Erick Clapton, Mick Jagger, UB 40, Black Uhuru, Steel Pulse, and Burning Spear. Reggae also influenced other kinds of music including Top Forty, Punk Rock and Rap.1 Many people in other countries especially the Third World and Black countries have recognized their own trouble in the expression of this loudest voice and have identified the suffering with music. Bob Marley's 7th album, "Survival" is covered with all flags of Black nations in the world including Papua New Guinea (PNG), the neighbor country of West Papua. Nowadays, people worldwide see Bob Marley as the symbol of freedom. His

1 _{Worth, David Steven.Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, Unpublished thesis, Texas: Texas}

Tech University, 1995, p. 3. Web. 18 January. 2014.

music and song are his vehicle to transmit a message of redemption.2

The Black Brothers, a popular band from Papua, the eastern most province of Indonesia, was once appeared to be one of the forefront and greatest bands in the nation in the 1970s and became the epitome of Papua popular music. Their music is the combination of traditional folksongs and popular music. They play various genres of music like rock, rock n roll, disco, slow pop, jazz, keroncong, and even reggae. The Black Brothers is known by its slow, mellow mood and romantic songs. However, there are also some songs addressing social problems. To some Papuans The Black Brothers is not only a popular band, but also a symbol of dignity and pride. Appeared from the eastern most part of the archipelago, The Black Brothers came to break the stigmatization of backwardness, primitivity, and alienation of its people.

Despite geographically they are separated thousand miles away with distinctive socio-cultural background but there seems to be a close affinity in terms of Black power movement to survive in their marginalized status and oppressive circumstances. Bob Marley has an international significance to the struggle of the oppressed, especially in Third World countries and Black nations as shown in aforementioned album's "Survival." The album is covered with the flags of all independent Black nations in the world, including Papua New Guinea (PNG), the neighboring country of Indonesia, just across the border of Papua. The

title of the album “Survival” may suggest that they are bound together in unity to

survive. The Black Brothers were among those who raised political consciousness through music with their fellow brothers and sisters in PNG, New Caledonia, and

Vanuatu. Meanwhile, to most of their fellow Indonesians outside the island, The Black Brothers simply wanted to show their Papuans' existence, uniqueness and distinctiveness.

When political situation disallowed artists to freely express themselves, subversive action then looms large. Therefore, this study would like to see how Bob Marley and especially The Black Brothers managed to penetrate the hegemonic and even oppressive public sphere through their music and songs. Jamaicans and Papuans in this case are to be seen as the subordinate groups who are marginalized by the dominant power. In avoiding direct confrontation with the ruling power the subordinate groups tend to play safe ground through cultural and artistic products including music and song.

Generally, this study is an analysis of the artistic musical response of Bob Marley toward socio-political conditions in post-colonial Jamaica, and The Black Brothers in the still colonized Papua in Indonesia. The impression of internal colonialism in Papua is shown through investigations by International Crisis Group and through testimonies by the locals, Papuan leaders, and activist literatures.3 Particularly, the study is intended to investigate to what extent and how Bob Marley and The Black Brothers used their music and songs as a form of resistance against hegemonic and oppressive power domination.

In understanding the objects of Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' artistic resistance, this study portrays the socio-political background where the two icons emerged to illuminate the structural conditions behind the critiques or protests. These distinctive socio-political conditions determine the methods they 3 _{Smith, Anthony L. Papua: Moving Beyond Internal Colonialism?, New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies}

4.2, December, 2002, pp 90-114. Web. January 20, 2015. <http://nzasia.org.nz/downloads/NZJAS-Dec02/Smith-Ng.pdf>

would use in addressing their protests. Here the method used was passive resistance through musical performance. Therefore, this thesis applies James Scott's4 concept of hidden transcript by focusing on two basic questions: (1) What are the differences and similarities shown by Bob Marley and The Black Brothers in using music and songs as hidden transcript to voice their resistance? (2) How does each artist use music, specifically song lyrics to show resistance?

This present study attempts to examine popular music as a multidisciplinary mosaic by linking it to literary study, in order to create a niche in English Literature studies using music as a text. The essence of song is an equality of music and text,5 in other words, song is a bridge that connects music and text that can enable a message to be clearly delivered. Music and words coexist through song lyric with which people will have the opportunity to study language as an art just like in poetry or in prose.6 Here, the literary analysis of song lyrics can be intertwined with musical, performative and social contexts of the popular music studied.7 Specifically, the room for literary researchers in popular music study would be called the verbal space where the words go side by side with musical tone. It seems quite likely that popular music depends on the words. They provide people with a means of communication to articulate a response to the song.8 It is no doubt that song lyric is a media to give a voice of individual and social phenomenon. Therefore, understanding the lyric would be an essential thing. It is an integral part of the musical experience. They connect the listeners by

4 _{Scott, James C. Domination and the Arts of Resistance, (Michigan: Yale University Press, 1990).}

5 _{Stein, Deborah and Spillman, Robert.Poetry Into Song.(New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 20.} 6 _{Stein, Deborah and Spillman, Robert.}

Poetry Into Song, p. 20.

7 _{Steinholt, Yngvar B."Coognitive Poetics in the analysis of Popular Music: A new approach to song} lyrics?"Web. 9 May 2014. <http://www.hum.uit.no/a/steinholt/cog_poe.pdf>.

enhancing the possibilities to be identified with the song.

However, the listeners or audience often do not pay attention and anticipate the persuasion that a song carries through its lyric. As a result, they do not decode the message that a singer intends to communicate. Another reason is that music tends to affect people more physically and emotionally than cognitively. In affecting people physically, music can contribute to socialization through dance. While emotionally and cognitively, music affects people by inviting them to relate to the themes of its lyrics to personal experience as a part of the act of processing the message of a song.9 Furthermore, the language of a song sometimes happens in the second semiotical order where the words have connotations through symbolism and metaphorical expression that allow a song to produce layers of meaning. Hence, it would require a precise approach to grasp the message.

As such, this study would conduct an in-depth analysis by using cognitive poetic analysis which encompasses the three nature of literary study namely text, reader, and context. Cognitive poetic analysis does not treat a literary text merely as an object for leisure and pleasure but intellectualizing it. Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' music and songs are not to be consumed for entertainment alone but also for their ideological, political, and social movement purposes. It is in this way that people will have a good understanding of the artistical power in music and songs as a way to stimulate social consciousness and, possibly, mobilize the listeners.

9 _{Worth, David Steven. Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley, postgraduate thesis, Texas Tech}

University, 1995, p. 47. Web. 18 January. 2014.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Review of Related Studies

Music is not only for entertainment, but also a means to communicate. As a contemporary popular art, music is always accompanied by song lyrics. It is an artistic expression and reference to convey ideas, thought, and emotional feelings. In this way song can be considered as oral verbal arts. In every song, the lyrics and music coexist harmoniously. The literary aspects of song lyrics can be studied closely as in poetry and prose. A representation to explain how popular music gets into literary study is conducted by Steinholt.1 In his article, Steinholt proposed a new approach to song lyrics through literary study using Peter Stockwell's cognitive poetic. Cognitive poetic in his sense is to engage in close analysis of the text, but also recognize that context has an important role in the creation of meaning. Popular music is a multidisciplinary domain. A literary analysis of song lyrics can be embedded in the musical, performative and social context of the popular music. Cognitive poetic is an entry point that can help improve the analysis. Furthermore, he explained about how listeners identify the texts by imagining bodies that inhabit them, be it in a written poem or a song lyrics. The task of literature science in popular music study is therefore to shed light on the interrelationship between the body constructed in the lyrics and its surrounding environment.

Steinholt argues that lyrics are an integral part of the musical experience, 1 _{Steinholt, Yngvar B.Cognitive Poetics in the analysis of Popular Music: A new approach to song lyric?}

and they enhance the possibilities for the listener to be identified with the song. As listeners, we identify texts (musical and lyrical) by imagining bodies inhabiting them. However a text might be abstract, therefore in order to negotiate meaning in a text we also project certain sides of ourselves onto an outer body, which we are prepared to send negotiations with the imagined body in the text. This successful negotiation and dialogue between default body and imagined one will bring new experiences, new insights and can activate new thoughts and emotions. It can be said that in cognitive poetics' nature there is a synergy between readers, text and context to gain a better understanding over an explicit and implicit body of a poem or a song. In popular music studies, the primary object of study for the science of literature can center on the body or bodies which reside in the lyrics. This body does not exist in isolation from any other bodies involved.

While there are several studies done on Bob Marley, only one study is thus far found on The Black Brothers by Sonfor Wambrauw.2 Most studies on Bob Marley focus on sociological and pedagogical values of his music and songs like what have been studied by Edward Skopal,3 Manisha Nordine,4 and Mervin Stoddart.5 One example that is closely related to literary analysis and this present

2 _{Wambrauw, Sonfor W.An Analysis of Theme and Tone in Six Selected Songs of Black Brothers (Balada} Pramuria, Cinta dan Pramuria, Kisah Seorang Pramuria, Pramuria Tapi Biarawati, Untukmu Pramuria, and Doa Pramuria),unpublished undergraduate thesis, Manokwari: State University of Papua, 2014.

3 _{Skopal, W. Edward, Jr."Hear Dem Cryin" Rastafari and Framing Processes in Reggae Music, postgraduate}

thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2005. Web. January 18. 2014.

<http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-06142005-091954/unrestricted/03edskopal_ThesisBody.pdf>.

4 _{Nordine, Manisha.Jammin' with Resistant Music and Popular Culture in Bob Marley's "Jah-Public,"a}

dissertation, University of Minnesota, 2007. Web. January 18. 2014.

<http://books.google.co.id/books?id=7A5R1UUCzsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=traditional+song+as+resistan ce&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bgUaUdmeNMitiAe544DABA&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=traditional%20song%20a s%20resistance&f=false>.

5 _{Stoddart, Mervin. Bob Marley's Lyrics:Understanding and Explaining Their Pedagogical Value,a}

dissertation, Capella University, 2007. Web. 18 January. 2014.

<http://books.google.co.id/books?id=_N4fvbkPYL0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=analisis+lirik+bob+marley& hl=en&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false>.

study is research conducted by David Steven Worth.6 In his study, Worth focused on analyzing metaphors used in Bob Marley's lyrics. The conceptual base for the study is to treat music as communication.

To start with the only work on The Black Brothers, Sonfor analyses the tone and theme in The Black Brothers' selected songs about "pramuria"

(prostitute).7 Sonfor considers The Black Brothers' song as oral poetry based on the assumption by Flanagan that poetry is a literary work, written or orally used to express the thought and feeling of the author. Using structuralism approach he then divides and interpretatively analyzes the theme based on Waluyo's categorization (humanity, social justice, sovereignty, and divinity). Next, he analyzes the tone based on Meyer's categorization (sad, serious, public, affectionate, bitter, and optimist).

Although Sonfor's study on The Black Brothers is useful, the treatment of song exactly as a poem needs to be reconsidered. His analysis structurally divides, translates, and analyzes the song per stanza and line. Changing the structure of the song would raise a contradiction, given that a song has its own characteristics and structure.

Worth’s research provides a good basic understanding in analyzing Bob

Marley’s lyrics. He is using Lackoff and Johnson’s theory which states that the

actual structure of the human conceptual system is metaphorical. Analyzing the songs in the eight albums of Bob Marley, Worth assumes that a great deal of the lyrics in those songs are often misunderstood by most people, especially 6 _{Worth, David Steven. Rastaman Vibration:The Rhetoric of Bob Marley,Unpublished Thesis: Texas Tech}

University, 1995, p. 3. Web. 18 January. 2014.

<https://repositories.tdl.org/ttu-ir/bitstream/handle/2346/18392/31295009462697.pdf?sequence=1>.

7 _{Wambrauw, Sonfor W.}

An Analysis of Theme and Tone in Six Selected Songs of Black Brothers (Balada Pramuria, Cinta dan Pramuria, Kisah Seorang Pramuria, Pramuria Tapi Biarawati, Untukmu Pramuria, and Doa Pramuria),unpublished undergraduate thesis, Manokwari: State University of Papua, 2014.

non-Jamaican, not only due to their pronunciation but also because of the metaphors which are mostly related to Jamaica and Rastafari in particular. Jamaican language is an extension of Jamaican Creole or Patois, that is a language which has consciously developed based on philosophical reasons. Jamaican language, says Worth is not a mere means of communication but more than that, it is a holy tool which has inherent power to evoke and to be the thing meant.8 It means that words are the source of power for the Rasta, which can change and adapt accordingly to their philosophy and goals. Bob Marley uses and infuses this kind of language into most of his songs, therefore without a proper knowledge, Worth claims that many of the lyrics would seem meaningless, or be severely misunderstood. He makes a clear division of patterns in relation to the structures of Bob Marley's metaphorical expression which he views as a form of Bob Marley's rhetorics in addressing protest and critics.

Worth's study reveals several trends in Bob Marley's metaphorical usage based on his spiritual beliefs of Rastafarianism, Jamaican rural and urban proverbs or wisdoms. There are eight metaphoric categories being discussed: light/dark, up/down, nature, journey, Babylon, free/slave, poverty, and metaphors from Rastafarian language.9 His discussion is quite helpful since it provides the basic explanation on language and expression commonly found in Bob Marley's songs which many times create confusion among his audience.

A more in-depth analysis on Bob Marley’s metaphorical language can be

found in the books of Dawes (Lyrical Genius) and Moskowitz (The Words and Music of Bob Marley). Dawes analyzes all songs in Bob Marley's nine albums

8 _{Worth, D.S.Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley,p. 27.} 9 _{Ibid,p. 67.}

produced or co-produced by Island Records. His work is also quite helpful since

Dawes, as a Jamaican writer, puts light onto Bob Marley’s works through the

perspective of Jamaican context. Social, political, and cultural nuance of Jamaica and Rasta are strongly embedded in Bob Marley's songs. The writer could see that these two books are complementary to each other. Dawes discusses in details of

every Bob Marley’s songs album started from the first “Catch a fire” to

posthumous release of “Confrontation.” He addresses Bob Marley’s genius

through metaphorical expression, witty pun and euphemism to juxtapose social and political realms with musical creativity. Just like what Dawes did, Moskowitz

also reveals the story behind Bob Marley’s songs and biographical review starting

from the early beginnings of the birth of Bob Marley until after his death. It is a biography as well as discography completed with stories behind almost every song and event.

Unlike the previous studies above, which mainly focus on each artist this present study would attempt to investigate the works of Marley and the Black Brothers in figuring the possible link between the two artists that their songs possess elements of hidden transcript as a form of resistance against hegemony and oppression by the power domination toward their respective social groups. This study also would attempt to link the disciplines of popular music study and literary study through the analysis of lyrics as a text. Despite of these facts, this study would be in debt for those previous studies on related topic especially like what has been done by Worth. He lays the ground as the stepping stone for this present study.His metaphoric categories of Bob Marley’s songsopen the way for this present study. The writer uses his works as the blue print or guidance in doing

the analysis. However, if there is any unjust of this present study, the writer would open to any criticism that will encourage further study of Bob Marley's and The Black Brothers' works.

2. Review of Jamaica and Papua Socio Political History

Review of relevant literature on the social and political contexts in which Bob Marley and The Black Brothers's music emerged is necessary to understand the condition which illuminate message in songs of Bob Marley and the Black Brothers. Following is the depiction of socio-political climate in Jamaica and Papua in arround 1960s to 1980s. This ill-fated hegemonic and repressive condition somehow affects the method Bob Marley and The Black Brothers used in their critique.

2.1. The Jamaican Socio-Political History

Jamaican history is painted with an explicit panorama of resistance, revolts, insurrections, up-risings, and riots starting from the early days of slavery.10 Jamaica had contact with the European when Christopher Colombus first landed on the Discovery Bay on May, 4th 1494. He brutally killed the indigenous people on the island, Taino, who resited to claim the invented land for Spain. Within approximately twenty five years, almost the entire Taino population (several hundred thousands) vanished due to combination of forced labor, under-nourishment, and disease.11 Lack of available laborers the Spanish then began to import African slaves by relatively limited numbers to work on 10 _{Wright, Colin.}

Badiou in Jamaica, The Politics of Conflict.(Australia: Colin Wright and re.press, 2013), p. 227.

plantation to crop bananas, tobacco, cocoa, and sugar. Spanish ruled over the land for three hundred years before English forced them to flee on May 1655. Jamaica was officially handed over to England under a treaty in Madrid, Spain in 1670. As the Spanish fled to the mainland of America and Cuba, the abandoned slaves escaped to form jungle based escapees who later named the Maroons (from Spanish for runaway, cimaroon). The Maroons play a significant role in Jamaica future struggles against slavery. There were several revolts took place: in 1760 a rebellion led by Tacky, an adherent of Mayal, a religious system that specialized in encountering the hex of evil people, resulting in the killings of many whites and destruction of plantation.12 In 1832, Sam Sharpe, a deacon in Native Baptist church, also led a rebellion but ended in defeat. One of the well known was Morant Bay rebellion which piloted by Paul Bogle, a Baptist deacon. Triggered by poverty, injustice, and lack of public confidence in the central authority, he led a protest march to Morant Bay courthouse on October 11th, 1865. The long march turned to be a violent confrontation which cause nearly five hundred people were killed. He was captured and hanged a few days later. However, his effort brought a change in official attitude toward the people. Another significant social movement was United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) led by Marcus Mosiah Garvey. He sought the unification of all Blacks and spoke out against economic exploitation and cultural denigration. He was also the man behind the socio-religious movement, Rastafarianism which emerged in 1930’s. In 1927 he

prophesied that a King will be crowned in Africa to redeem all Blacks. This prophecy was not taken lightly by his followers that they claimed it to be real as in

1930 Prince Ras Tafari was crowned Emperor Haile Selassie I in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ever since, in Jamaica many began to consult their Bibles in search of scriptures which mentioned about this event. They discovered many passages

offered in support of Garvey’s prophecy. Among others are Revelation 5:2-5, in which a descendant of David is described as able to loose the seven seals; Ezekiel 37:22-25, in which a descendant of David is prophesied to be ruler of the world; Isiah 43:1-15, 65:9, in which descendant of Jacob is prophesied to be the ruler of the world (Nicholas, 1979 in Worth).13 Using these passages they started to preach that Selassie was the living God, he was actually the Messiah returned. Apart from this spiritual awaits of a redeemer that came true, at last the day of redemption arrived that on August 6, 1962 Jamaica got its political independence from British colonial rule. However this was just a new beginning, the journey to a full freedom still far from what being expected.

It was just like “jumping out the frying pan into the fire,” after the end of the white colonial power, Jamaica faces a new problem. The history of Jamaica modern politics was largely insinuated by the story of the two warring parties, Jamaican Labor Party (JLP) and People National Party (PNP). The rivalry started at the early formation of the parties by their founders Alexander Bustamante (JLP) and Norman Washington Manley (PNP). Violence became institutionalized in modern Jamaican politics. Political process was destabilized by corrosive influence of partisan politics, whereby party loyalists dependent on political patronage were encouraged by the parties to defend local constituencies and participate in political conflicts.14 These conflicts kept on its trail until 1960’s

13 _{Worth, D.S.Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley,p. 15.}

under Edward Seaga (JLP) and Michael Manley (PNP). Jamaica society was divided into two poles which involved in war of party loyal supporters. Inner-city neighborhoods were divided into certain sections according to political allegiance.15 Political parties and their leaders mobilized grassroots supporters through ideology, demagoguery, inter-party conflicts, political patronage, and utilized the rhetoric of political campaign speeches to incite acts of aggression in an effort to defeat their rivals.16

The times leading to each election were so terrifying. Acts of violence directed at innocent people, such as shooting and arson, created fear and panic.17 The number of violence kept on increasing in each election 1972, 1976, and reached its peak in 1980. The total number of murders reported in 1980 was 889.538, a number which attributed primarily to politically motivated violence due to constituencies where the murders occurred and the people who were killed. On December 3, 1976 Bob Marley, his wife, Rita, manager Don Taylor were

gunned in Bob Marley’s house at 56 Hope Road. Luckily they were all survived. The attack was a few days before Bob Marley about to perform on "Smile Jamaica" concert to ease the political tension before the election. There could be some reasons behind the shooting, but one of them was because of the resentment

by the JLP of Bob Marley’s close relation to Michael Manley from PNP .18

Despite this devastating political race between politicians to take charge in bringing the people to a brighter future, Jamaican governments both JLP and PNP

Columbia University, 2011, p. 3. Web. April 1st, 2014.

<http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/.../Williams_columbia_0054D_10107.pdf>.

15 _{Leslie, Glaister.}

Confronting the Don: The Political Economy of Gang Violence in Jamaica.(Geneva: Small Arms Survey, 2010), p. 12.

16 _{Williams, K.F.}

The Evolution of Political Violence in Jamaica 1940-1980,p. 8.

17 _{Ibid,p. 264.}

failed to reform the economy. This was mainly due to the lack of necessary manufactories and infrastructure for agriculture to develop local industry.19 This

problem led to the country’s dependency on foreign capital and loans from IMF

and World Bank. Although IMF loans did generate short-term economic growth but its long term effects was so devastating. Higher cost of living expense, and firing thousands of civil servants increased unemployment. Jamaica was once again implicitly colonized through the mechanism of debt. “Jamaica’s colonial past has become an IMF structural present.”20

As what Bob Marley sings "No chains around my feet but I'm not free/ I know I'm bound here in captivity," he is telling the people that a new form of enslavement has entrapped new free Jamaica. Social and political phenomenon has degraded people's humanity. This is what Bob Marley was struggling for, and that he wants the people to know as he sings "emancipate yourself from mental slavery/ 'cause none but ourselves can free our mind/ so won't you help me to sing another song of freedom."

2.2. The Papuan Socio-political History

“A land of disputes” is perhaps the most fitting term to describe the

socio-political condition embedded to Papua, the world’s second largest island. It was once a mysterious and an abandoned land. The first contact with outsiders was when in 1545 a Spanish sailor Ortiz Retez landed on the island on his way to

Panama. He claimed the island for the King of Spain and named it “Nueva

Guinea” (New Guinea). The naming was due to the similarities of the population 19 _{Williams, K.F.The Evolution of Political Violence in Jamaica 1940-1980,pp. 258-265.}

with those in Guinea, Africa. The Spanish left afterwards and never returned, the modern name of the land only legalization to them.21 In 1605 a Dutch man, Willem Janz, landed on the land. However some of his crews were slayed by the locals which forced them to flee. Another colonial European who landed on the

land was the British troops. The Captain, John Hayes, proclaimed it as “New

Albion” in 1793. They set up a wooden fortress in Dore Gulf, Manokwari and name it Fort Coronation. However due to diseases and conflicts with other European competitors, the English withdrew. The Dutch then took their place and claimed the island in 1828, mainly because of their East Indies authority. Despite of their claim the Dutch did not set up administrative institutions on the island instead appointed Sultan of Tidore to administer the territory.22 It was in 1907 that they began to open the land for its natural resources. The Dutch oil company started to tap into the region. This was followed by the mining corporation between Netherland and America after the wealth of resources available (cooper and gold) became increasingly apparent.

Regardless of the affinity between the two sides of New Guinea, a border was drawn down the middle by European colonialists in 1895 and 1910 which officially divided them. The Dutch claimed the western half while the eastern part went to British and Germans. The first revolt against the European colonial power was recorded in 1930s under a Messianic movement, "Koreri" around Schouten Islands where Biak is the biggest one among them.23 Kamma, a Dutch missionary,

21 _{Osborne, Robin.Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat.}

(Yogyakarta: ELSAM dan Putaka Pelajar Yogyakarta, 2001), p. 14.

22 _{Brundige, Elizabeth, et all. "Indonesian Human Right Abuses in West Papua: Application of the Law of}

Genocide to the History of Indonesian Control," a paper by Yale Law School, 2004, p. 10. Web. May 1st. 2014. <http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/Intellectual_Life/West_Papua_final_report.pdf>

23 _{Osborne, Robin.Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat,p.}

claimed that"Koreri"is more like a cultural and nationalism consciousness than a religious movement. The "Koreri" movement was led by a woman named

“Angganita Manufandu” who was entitled “the Virgin of Judah.” She claimed that

the Dutch missionaries who happened to be colonialists had stollen and corrupted the Bible before it was given to the locals and changed it with the teachings that benefited the Dutch in gaining material matters and power.24 Despite of this anti-white colonial power, West New Guinea increasingly became tenser when the independence of Indonesia took place in 1945.25

On July 1945, a month before Hiroshima and Nagazaki were bombed, two meetings were held by BPKI (Badan Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia), a committee sponsored by Japan to prepare Indonesia independence, discussing territory borders. The result of the voting was thirty nine voices for Indonesia territory which consist of ex-Netherland East Indies including New Guinea, north Borneo, Sarawak, Brunei, and Sabah, Malay, Portuguese Timor, and nearby islands. Soekarno and Mohamad Yamin, were among this group. Nineteen went to favor only ex-Netherland East Indies including New Guinea. While only six chose only ex-Netherland East Indies, without New Guinea. Mohamad Hatta was among this minority group. According to him the Papuans are Melanesian and that they deserve to decide their own destiny as a free nation.26 Despite victory of the majority in the voting, on the proclamation day of the Indonesia independence, Soekarno made no mention of New Guinea to be part of the new nation. The territory lies from the western most island in Sumatra to the eastern most island in 24 _{Osborne, Robin.Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat,}

p.23.

25 _{Saltford, John.The Anatomy of Betrayel: The United Nations and the Indonesian Takeover of West Papua,} 1962-1969.(London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), p. 1.

26 _{Osborne, Robin.Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat,}

Mollucas. However, the disputes have continued to date.

On July 1946, a conference was held in Malino, Southern Sulawesi for representations from eastern parts of the archipelago to discuss the possibility of Indonesia federation which consist of four full autonomous states. Most of the delegations favored to form Republic of Indonesia. However, a delegation of New Guinea, Franz Kaisepo, refused to join and that the Papuans required a self

determination. He even proposed a new name for the island “Iryan.” It comes

from Biak which in a simple translation means “fog.” This is to describe the

uprising of the island like fog coming up from the sea. Despite of this philosophical name, later Indonesia adopted it and made it became IRIAN, a political acronym of “Ikut Republic Indonesia Anti Netherlands.”27 This new apolitical name of Irian Barat(West Irian) was used by Soekarno when he issued

Tri Komando Rakyat (the Peoples' Triple Commands) to free Papua from the Dutch's occupation. It is later in 1973 under Soeharto's administration that the name changed toIrian Jaya.

From August 23 to November 2, 1949 another conference known as

Konferensi Meja Bundar (Round Table Conference) was held in Hague between Indonesia and Netherlands. Both sides agreed to establish Republik Indonesia Serikat (United States of Indonesia) with the Dutch Queen as the head and Soekarno as the President. The Netherlands also agreed to cede sovereignty of East Indies to Indonesia but kept Papua as its final foothold in Southeast Asia. They both agreed that the status of West New Guinea will be decided in further talks within a year which later proven to be fail.

27 _{Osborne, Robin.Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat,p.}

The Dutch promised to bring West New Guinea into a better future by educating and training the local indigenous people to govern their own country

before they leave. They started the process of nation building of Papua in 1950’s.

By 1957, they had created several positions for Papuan in government services. In February 1961 the Dutch launched West New Guinea Council, a representative body intended to encourage the establishment of a Papuan political elite that would eventually govern the region after Dutch withdrawal.28 The working time period was ten years where they can declare an independent when the people agree.29 On December 1, 1961 the WNG Council voted to rename the territory "West Papua" with a national anthem, "Hai Tanahku Papua"(O My Land Papua), and a national flag, "Bintang Kejora" (The Morning Star). This was enough to pull the trigger. Soekarno got very furious and the tense grew hotter. On December 19, 1961 in Yogyakarta, Soekarno issued Tri Komando Rakyat (the

People’s Triple Command) calling for total mobilization of Indonesians to liberate

Irian Barat(West Irian).

Indonesian government began to embark on military tactics against Netherlands in West Papua. Paratroops were launched on the island and forced the Dutch to withdraw. Both of them were engaged in battle contacts along the West Papua shores. In the assistance to feed his eagerness in winning the battle of West New Guinea, Soekarno turned to Soviet Bloc to support his diplomatic pressure and massive military expenditure.30 His visit to Moscow in 1956 resulted in the granting of US$100 million credit. By 1962 Indonesia was the largest 28 _{Brundige, Elizabeth, et all."Indonesian Human Right Abuses in West Papua: Application of the Law of} Genocide to the History of Indonesian Control,"p. 13.

29 _{Osborne, Robin.Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat,p.}

54.

30 _{Saltford, John.The Anatomy of Betrayel: The United Nations and the Indonesian Takeover of West Papua,}

non-communist recipient of Soviet Bloc aid with credits exceeding US$1.5 billion. Between 1962 and 1963, his government spent approximately US$2 billion on military equipment. It can be seen that almost all of Indonesian naval vessels that sunk during the battles were Russian-built.

With this threat, Washington took a position asserting that giving Indonesian the control of the territory seemed to be the only solution to avoid Indonesia being driven into Soviet Bloc.31 U.S. President John F. Kennedy played a role in setting a negotiation between the Dutch and the Indonesians. On August 15, 1962 the two warring nations signed the New York Agreement under the patronage of the United Nations. In this agreement there was not any single representative of indigenous West Papuan whose land being disputed took part. Under its terms, the Netherlands had to transfer its authority to United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) on October 1, and the U.N. administration would hand over the territory to Indonesia on or after May 1, 1963. Further in the agreement, sometimes after the take over Indonesia must make a referendum under U.N. supervision to allow the West Papuans to decide their own fate, whether or not to join Indonesia. On May 4, 1963 Soekarno arrived in West New Guinea (West Irian) for a visit. He appointed Eliezer Bonay as Governor and banned all existing Papuan political parties and unofficial political activities. There were about 1500 Indonesian commandos remain in the territory to assist the local police. However, they were involved in harsh tactics to restrain Papuan nationalist sentiment. Ever since armed struggle began between Indonesian military and pro-independence Papuan resistance movement known as OPM

31 _{Saltford, John.The Anatomy of Betrayel: The United Nations and the Indonesian Takeover of West Papua,}

(Organisasi Papua Merdeka) which was founded the same year after UNTEA pulled out. Sporadic rebellions began to spread around the territory particularly in

the Bird’s Head region. One of well known revolts was “Arfai Assaults” who was

led by Sergeant Permenas Awom, an ex-PVK (Papua Volunteer Korps) in Dutch time. Together with several OPM guerrillas they killed several Indonesian soldiers and took their guns and ammunitions. Indonesian military responded by targeting civilians as well as OPM fighters. Killings, disappearances, torture, and rape of Papuans deliberately carried out by Indonesian military forces as a form of explicit power domination. In addition to that, the Indonesian government organized mass migrations from Java to West Papua under transmigration program, a political driven agenda to equalize the number of local inhabitants. This was an implicit form of the power domination.

Like fishing in the murky pond by neglecting the political unrest in the territory, U.S.-based multinational mining corporation, Freeport, signed its contract with the Indonesian government under its new appointed president, Soeharto. Freeport was given a power over the local population and resources, including the right to take land, and to resettle the local inhabitants without proper compensation. This situation even worsened the situation leading to the referendum. The people felt like they were going to be robed to nothing under Indonesian authority.

1969 was a time of the biggest scam in all of Papuans’history just like

‘9/11’ to the Americans.32 1969 provokes an historical monologue. It is the time

when the “Act of Free Choice” or “Penentuan Pendapat Rakyat (PEPERA) was

held. Under the terms of New York Agreement in accordance with international practice, all eligible adults have the right to vote. However, instead of one man one vote, Indonesian government arranged 1.025 selective representatives out of approximately 700.000 populations from eight assemblies. Most of those selected representatives were not eligible since many of them were old men who could not read and write. They were put in a solitary where they were intimidated, brainwashed and bribed. They could not speak to people outside. Soldiers guarded the entrance and they were accompanied wherever they went. They were also fed well and given gifts of teapots, plates, Sanyo radios, bicycles, and Honda motorcycles, things which are considered to be fancy in that time for Papuans. Some even were given Javanese women.33 All of these things make it clear that

1969 “Act of Free Choice” or“PEPERA”was a form of mockery to Papuans. Its implementation is bare: tactical selection, concealment, bribery, and seduction by objects associated to pleasure. To Papuans it was a fraudulent while to Indonesian government it was an unanimous victory. Planes scattered pamphlets on Papuan sky proclaiming the victory.

Discontent with the condition OPM began to intensify its sporadic rebellions. The clash with Indonesian militar broke in several places, Manokwari, Enarotali, Byak, and Jayapura.34 As a response Indonesian government began its military operations to infiltrate the island from any form of Papuan national sentiment.35 The Indonesian militar targeted not only OPM freedom fighters but also civilians. Any forms of social, religious, cultural activities were put under

33 _{Glazebrook, Diana."Permissive Residents" (West Papuan Refugees Living in Papua New Guinea),p. 23.} 34 _{Osborne, Robin.}

Kibaran Sampari: Gerakan Pembebasan OPM, dan Perang Rahasia di Papua Barat,pp. 91-99.

suspicion by Indonesian government. People were intimidated and lived in terror. Some were forced to flee across the border of Indonesian and Papua New Guinea and lived in exile.36

The annexation and mal-administration by Indonesian government has fostered Papuan nationalism. West Papuan experience of Indonesian colonialization has caused the raising of what is called by Johanes Baptist Metz as "memoria passionis" or collective memories of suffering that they long for freedom. It is estimated that over ninety per cent of the West Papuans in that time wanted independence.37

3. Theoretical Concepts

This section discusses several concepts that are considered important in

the analysis of Bob Marley and The Black Brothers’ lyrics in relation to each

respective's socio-political sphere. These are the entry points into the journey to understand the wit of literary work in criticizing hegemonic and oppressive power domination.

3.1. Cognitive Poetics

Steinholt38 uses the concept of cognitive poetics to link up the relation between the disciplines of literature and music through the study of words in song lyrics. Since communication in music happen lyrically, examination of the lyric is 36 _{Glazebrook, Diana.}

"Permissive Residents" (West Papuan Refugees Living in Papua New Guinea),p. 5.

37 _{Saltford, John.The Anatomy of Betrayel: The United Nations and the Indonesian Takeover of West Papua,}

1962-1969, p. 78.

38 _{Steinholt, Yngvar B.Cognitive Poetics in the analysis of Popular Music: A new approach to song lyric?}

necessary. One way to accomplish it is through cognitive poetic analysis.

He uses Peter Stockwell's cognitive poetics concept, namely reading which involves mental process and poetics concern on the craft of literature. It is a reading which not only focuses on the text itself but also the context that also plays an important role in constructing the meaning. In short, cognitive poetic is an approach to a literary work through a close analysis of both text and context. Cognitive poetics is all about reading literature since cognition is to do with mental process in reading, while poetics concerns with the literary crafts. Reading literary texts is not just an ordinary type of reading and should be treated in a certain way. Ordinary types of reading is when people just read for themselves and feel happy about it without bothering too much for discussing it, intellectualize it, let alone fitting their understanding into theoretical framework. Most readers have the tendency to treat literary texts as merely objects of fun and pleasure. However, cognitive poetics does not allow reading literature for leisure and pleasure, but instead reading to understand it, reflect on it, and intellectualizing it. It is in this sense that this present study is to read the works of Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' lyrics.

Furthermore, reading itself is not meant to come to an abstract end. Reading is not to arrive at an absolute end of information we intend to get. Instead, we need to take into account that very often the discovery of reading involves a great deal of messy and perhaps contradictory facts of what we have thought before. Therefore, what is important in reading a piece of literary work is the detail to unveil all the interest and fascination behind a particular literary work. When one reads a certain literary text, the questions that normally arise are as

follows: What is it about? What does it mean? What does it mean for me? What do I understand by it? All of these questions are to do with context and are a crucial notion in cognitive poetics.

Furthermore, the key to have a better understanding literary values and meanings lies in the ability to have clear view of its text and context. Cognitive poetics provides us with it. It encompasses both social and personal circumstances as it has the power to combine both individual and communal effects of language and experience. Response to the questions might be personal and communal based on the context. What we do with a piece of literary work depends very much on the context in which we find ourself with the text. There are as many meanings as there are different contexts for different readings. According to Stockwell, it is important to recognize that readings have status not objectively but relative to their circumstances. Therefore, when this particular study asks what do Bob

Marley’s and The Black Brothers’ songs mean? It is really asking what those songs do, what are they being used for. Meaning is what literature does. Meaning is use.39

3.2. Conceptual Metaphor

One of the main points of cognitive poetic analysis is the conceptual metaphor, an idea popularized by George Lakoff which functions as a tool for analyzing text.40 This metaphorical analysis then can provide a window into the

39 _{Stockwell, Peter. Cognitive Poetics. (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), p. 4.}

40 _{Lakoff, George.The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor.(Cambridge University Press: 1992). Web.}

conceptual system, or worldview, of a rhetor (speaker).41 Metaphor can be found in many forms of communication, including spoken and written discourse. Despite the fact that it is viewed as a literary device used for extraordinary or poetic utterances, it also can serve as an ordinary and conventional forms of communication. It is confirmed by researchers that metaphor is commonly used in literature as in poetry, prose and song lyric. Like most songs, the lyrics in Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' songs make a significant use of metaphor and personification.

Leff in Worth (p.56) concludes that metaphor consists of a juxtaposition of two terms normally regarded as belonging to different classes of experiences. The same is true with personification in that the juxtaposition is specifically between animate and inanimate; how the quality of animate is equated to inanimate. Therefore the writer assumes that Leff's concept of metaphor is applicable to personification as well. The two terms of comparison define the principle subject of the metaphor and personification and the frame into which it is placed. Richards in Worth (p.56) named these terms "tenor" and "vehicle" where widely used and have provided a basic terminology for the study of metaphor in rhetoric. An example is "man is wolf." In the example man is the tenor, the subject of the metaphor and wolf is the vehicle, the frame into which man has been placed. The attributes of a wolf is given to the man. A wolf is a predatory animal, a hunter, often despised in history and regarded as a bad animal. Thus, the man is being described as an undesirable, predatory, and animal-like person.42

Other examples are taken from Bob Marley and The Black Brothers. In 41 _{Worth, David Steven.}

Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley,p. 54.

"Wake up and live" Bob Marley equates life to a journey on a big road. "Life is

one big road with lots of signs/ so when you driving through the road don’t you

complicate your mind/ Flee from hate/ mischief, and jealousy." Here life is tenor, subject of the metaphor, and big road with lot of signs is vehicle, the frame into which life has been placed. Big road is a hectic place where people travel on. Therefore, one needs to be careful in driving and paying attention to the signs. Life is a journey that people need to stay in focus so that they will notice the signs and not to get lost and to avoid accident. Hates, mischief, and jealousy make people lose focus and that can be fatal both for themselves and others.

In"Melati Plastik" (Plastic Jasmine), The Black Brothers equates a girl to a plastic jasmine, a handmade flower. The fake flower can look beautiful and last forever but it does not have natural scent which is the essence of a true flower.

"Kau melati plastik/ dikau melati palsu"(You the plastic Jasmine/you are fake like camouflage). You is the tenor, and plastic jasmine is the vehicle, the frame into which you has been placed. The attributes of the plastic jasmine is given to you (a girl).

Here we can see that the meaning emerges from the interaction of the two terms. Jordan and Adams in Worth identified three functions of tenor and vehicle: their interaction; the similarity or comparison on which that interaction is based; and the dependency upon context of the meaning which emerges from the interaction. The terms are juxtaposed and the juxtaposition leads to a pattern of associations by the vehicle.

Based on Osborn and Ehninger in Worth (p.57), the role of context in the metaphoric process consists of four level, which they call "qualifiers" that play an

important role in affecting the meaning of a metaphor.43 The first deals with the immediate textual or situational context within which the metaphor is used, the second deals with social knowledge as discussed above, and the last deals with associations provided by the individual listeners. Contextual qualifiers refer to the context of a discourse in terms of its actual text and the situation in which it is used. It is a social knowledge that bound to a particular audience at a particular time. The writer would figure out an example, i.e. hostes. Originally this English term means a waitress which does not have negative connotation at all. But when it was adopted to be used in Indonesia during 1970s to 1980s the term has a negative connotation similar to a prostitute.

The second level is called communal qualifiers. This level extends beyond the text or audience but is culturally bound, relying on culturally-based social knowledge. It directs the meaning of the metaphor by drawing from the funded knowledge-the common experiences traditions, or folkways-of the public to whom the stimulus is directed. The interpretation has been approved and stamped upon them by authority. It means that the meaning of the metaphor has been sticked and inherited and accepted by the folks. As an example is the color of red and white. Red stands for the braveness of the martyrs who shed their blood and white stands for the holiness.

The third level is called Archetypal qualifier. These qualifiers are not temporally or culturally bound. They supply meaning based on "experiences common to men of many races and ages-experiences relieved by each generation anew." It means that the meaning of the metaphor or the symbol is already

accepted and understood by many people and not exclusively oriented to one culture. As an example is dove which symbolizes peace and heart for love.

The last level is private qualifier. This kind of context affects the meaning assigned by a listener through personal or subjective associations. This qualifier is important because even when contextual, communal, and archetypal qualifiers share a "high degree of commonality" in a metaphor, it provides an interpretation which is unique to the particular listener.44 As an example is taken from Bob Marley's song "Burnin' and lootin'" "How many rivers do we have to cross/before we can talk to the boss." The term river is commonly found in Negro spiritual45 songs which symbolizes trials and tribulation, but also can mean freedom, hope and purification as in baptism. The term boss might refer to master slave or the divinity of God. In the circumstance of crisis boss is the one to deal with if things are to improve. Israelites got their freedom after they come to meet Pharaoh, their slave master, begging for mercy through the guidance and will of their God. It is in this sense that Marley would seem to employ these symbols.

There is a two-way connection between thought and language, language is metaphoric in nature, therefore thought affects, and is affected by, metaphor. The relationship between thought, language, metaphor, and social knowledge eventuates into a position positing that metaphor provides a framework for reality. All experience is shaped metaphorically. This shaping is called framing by Mumby and Spitzack. They regard metaphor as providing frames through which the public views, and forms opinions of, specific social issues.46 It is through this

44 _{Worth, D.S.Rastaman Vibration: The Rhetoric of Bob Marley,p. 58.} 45 _{Dawes, Kwame.}

Bob Marley: Lyrical Genius,(London, United Kingdom: Sanctuary Publishing Limited, 2002), p. 86.

sense that the writer assumes that the metaphoric expressions in Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' songs can provide frame into which people can see specific social and political issues based on the qualifiers above.

3.3. Hidden Transcript

I tremble to speak the words of freedom before the tyrant

--CORYPHAEUS, in Euripedes,The Baccae

In his book, "Domination and the Arts of Resistance," James Scott highlights his view upon power and resistance of the subordinate groups.

Influenced by Antonio Gramsci’s concepts of hegemony, Scott identified hidden transcript of expression manifesting this resistance behind the official story of hegemonic public transcripts.47 It is about how the resistance of subordinates

toward domination is disguised, muted, and veiled for safety’s sake. In order to

avoid direct confrontation with the ruling power, the subordinate groups manifold strategies to insinuate their resistance in disguised form into the public transcript. While public transcript is the official script of the domination which ties both the oppressor and the oppressed into modes of acceptable behaviour,48 the hidden transcript is what occurs below the surface.

The works of Erving Goffman may give a good insight to Scott's theory of hidden transcript. Goffman's main focus is to analyze daily interaction to see the power relation between the powerful and the powerless through what he

47 _{Barnard, Eben.Cultural resistance: Can such practices ever have a meaningful political impact? Critical} Social Thinking:Policy and Practice,Vol.3 (2011), p.114. Web. December 12. 2013.

<http://www.ucc.ie/en/appsoc/researchconference/conf/cstj/cstjournalvolume32011/ebenbernard/EbenBarnar d.pdf>.

48 _{Nordine, Manisha.Jammin' with Resistant Music and Popular Culture in Bob Marley's "Jah-Public,"p.}

postulated as "theatrical performance." According to Goffman, individuals can participate as both as performers and as audience. When on stage as performers, individuals try to present themselves in a certain way in order to show the preferred definition of the situation, while as audience they try to accommodate the projected images of others to facilitate interaction rituals.49 As it is, the interaction is not genuine and only a false pretense to maintain working relationship. Scott even made it clearer that according to him appearances can be deceiving. The offstage life is a completely different story. The powerless tend to create their own stories than to accept the official stories of the dominant. In his book, "Domination and the Art of Resistance: Hidden Transcript,"50 Scott defined discourses and practices onstage as public transcript while hidden transcript as offstage scenes that take place behind the suspicious eyes of the dominant. The powerless only show their hidden feelings to families, friends, and colleagues.

Scott further states that the hidden transcript can be the act of passive resistance which is deeply inscribed into everyday practices. This takes many forms including cultural production such as music, jokes, rumors, and folklore. The subordinate as the vulnerable groups not only have to control their anger but have to conduct what amounts to veil the discourse of their dignity and self-assertion within the public transcript.

The undeclared ideological guerrilla war that rages in this political space requires that we enter the world of rumor, gossip, disguises, linguistic tricks, metaphors, euphemisms, folktales, ritual gestures, anonymity. For good reason, nothing is entirely straightforward here; the realities of power for subordinate groups mean that much of their political action requires

49 _{Joo, Hyung-min. “Hidden Transcripts...Shared?: Passive Resistance in The Soviet Case.” The Korean}

Journal of International Studies, Korea University. Vol 8. No.2. 2010, pp. 227-298. Web. October 7. 2014. <http://www.kaisnet.or.kr/resource/down/8_2_04.pdf>

interpretation precisely becauseit _{is intended to be cryptic and opaque.}51 The voice of the subordinate groups tend to penetrate the public sphere within the public transcript through the world of rumor, gossip, disguises, linguistic tricks, metaphors, euphemisms, folktales, ritual gestures, and anonymity. Therefore, one has to read carefully to unveil the intended message behind those disguises.

If we wish to hear this side of the dialogue we shall have to learn its dialect and codes. Above all, recovering this discourse requires a grasp of the arts of political disguise.52

It is through this sense that the writer assumes the works of Bob Marley and especially The Black Brothers are the arts of political disguise.

Although Scott developed his concept of hidden transcript twenty four years ago based on the life of the remote Malaysian village of Sedaka, the writer of this thesis assumes that it is still applicable nowadays. It would seem that there are not many disputes over the theory since it is still relevant and beneficial for other researchers on power relation, especially in developing countries in Asia. As far as the writer concern there is one article by Hyung-min Joo from Korea University which has challenged the exclusivity of Scott's theory. Hidden transcripts tend to be hidden tightly to Scott. In an analog, a slave cannot share his hidden transcript with his master. The sharing is only with his families, friends, and other slaves. Somehow these hidden transcripts can also be shared with the master according to Hyung-min Joo.53 As an empirical support he uses evidence in Soviet's social and political life where the sharing of hidden transcript between the powerful and the powerless can possibly occur as a social phenomenon. This

51 _{Ibid, p. 137.} 52 _{Ibid,p. 138.}

new point of view does not change the basic tenets of Scot's theory but enriching it.

3.4. Memoria Passionis

The concept of memoria passionis was proposed by German theologian, Johannes Baptist Metz.54 There are two types of memory: static memory which is only the recall of the past without any action and dynamic memory which the recall of the past springs to the present and the future. Memoria passionis is a dynamic memory. It is a collective memory of sufferings in the past ready to explode in the present or near future. Metz theorized memoria passionist to be manifested in a political consciousness and political action in the memory of people's suffering. They are inscribed through social memory and flows incisively and clearly from the mouths of ordinary people. It is through this sense that the writer assumes Bob Marley and The Black Brothers' songs function.

4. Theoretical Framework

Under the scene of popular music atmosphere, the mass production and commercialization make music impact people more on the physical and emotional levels. This in turn will lead them to use music merely as pleasure and leisure. The works of Bob Marley and The Black Brothers, however go beyond music being a means of entertainment. Their works, this thesis shall argue, are the embodiment of musical creativity and resistance. In order to understand it that way, one needs

71 Bad Card 72 We and Them 73 Work

74 Zion Train 75 Pimpers Paradise 76 Could You Be Loved 77 Forever Loving Jah 78 Redemption Song

Table 2

Album

Number of Songs

Socio-Politics/Re ligious

Love song/Dance tunes

Catch a Fire 9 7 2

Burnin' 10 9 1

Natty Dread 9 7 2

Rastaman Vibration 10 9 1

Exodus 10 6 4

Kaya 10 2 8

Survival 10 10 0

Uprisising 10 9 1

Total 78 59 19

Table 3.

BOB MARLEY'S ENTIRE SAMPLE (78) Albu

m 1 (9) Album 2 (10) Albu m3 (9) Album 4 (10) Album 5 (10) Album 6 (10) Album 7 (10) Album 8 (10) Tota l

N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

Babyl

on 4 4 4 6 2 1 4 1

2 6 Rastaf

arianis

m 0 3 1 1 0 0 0 1 6

Pan-Af ricanis

m 0 0 1 0 1 0 3 0 5

Livity 3 3 3 2 5 7 3 7

3 3 Roma

nce/L

ove 2 0 0 1 2 2 0 1 8

7 8

Table 4

Album

Number of Songs

Social Criticism

Cultural pride and Identity

Love

Songs/Dance Tunes

Irian Jaya 1 10 0 5 5

Derita Tiada Akhir 8 1 2 5

Lonceng Kematian 8 1 2 5

Kenangan

November 8 0 1 7

Kaum Benalu 9 2 2 5

Misteri 7 0 2 5

Volume Perdana 8 5 1 2

Hening 8 0 1 7

Total 66 9 16 41

Table 5.

No Song Album Year

Irian Jaya 1

1976

1 Persipura

2 Terjalin Kembali 3 Oh Sonya 4 Irian Jaya

5 Balada Dua Remaja 6 Putus di Tengah Kerinduan 7 Apuse

8 Jayapura di Waktu Malam 9 Kisah Seorang Pramuria 10 Kali Kemiri

Derita Tiada Akhir

1976

11 Derita Tiada Akhir

12 Terima Kasih 13 Hari Kiamat 14 Huembello 15 Hilang

16 Keroncong Kenangan 17 Cinta dan Pramuria 18 Irian Jaya 2

Lonceng Kematian

1977

19 Doa Pramuria

20 Black Brothers 21 Lonceng Kematian 22 Amapondo

23 Melati di Tanah Gersang 24 Kuburan Tua

25 Sahabatku Anggie 26 Tragedi Awal Agustus

Kenangan

November

1977

27 Gadis Lembah Sunyi 28 Dewi Kribo

29 Kenangan November 30 Gadis Bilyard

31 Tiada Senyum di Akhir Senja 32 Musik Masa Kini

33 Bertemu Takkan Terpisah 34 Untukmu Pramuria

Kaum Benalu

1978

35 Tirai

36 Layu DI Ujung Senja 37 Saman Doye 38 Balada Pramuria 39 Gundik-gundik Latah 40 Kaum Benalu

41 Keroncong Gunung Syclop 42 Jurang

43 Lagu Yang Terpotong

Misteri

1978

44 Pramuria Tapi Biarawati 45 Misteri

46 Gerimis di Hati Gersang 47 Mangge-mangge 48 Pantai Pasir 2 49 Goyang Disco 50 Keroncong Irian Jaya

Volume Perdana 1979 51 Juwita Malam

52 Kuncup Putih 53 Kurnia Ilahi 54 Gigolo

55 Tangan Hampa 56 Ino Mote Ngori 57 Tanah Dosa 58 Rengsa

Hening 1979

60 Hening 61 Melati Plastik 62 Memori 63 Beku

64 Mega Masih Kelabu 65 Gadis Kerudung Putih 66 Yawonde

Table 6.

THE BLACK BROTHERS' ENTIRE SAMPLE (66) Album

1 (10)

Album 2 (8)

Albu m3 (8)

Album 4 (8)

Album 5 (9)

Album 6 (7)

Album 7 (8)

Album 8 (8)

Tota l

N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

Irian Jaya/Pa

pua 5 2 2 1 2 3 0 1

1 6 Roman

ce/Lov

e 4 2 1 4 4 2 0 4

2 1 Social

Criticis

m 0 1 1 0 2 0 4 0 7

Pramur

ia 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 9

Other Theme

s 0 2 3 2 0 1 2 2

1 3 6 6

APPENDIX 2 Bob Marley's Songs Selected for Analysis

Ambush In The Night

Bad Card

Burnin' and Lootin'

Concrete Jungle

Crazy Baldhead

Crisis

Duppy Conqueror

Easy Skankin'

Get Up Stand Up

I Shot The Sheriff

Johnny Was

Kaya

Natty Dread

One Drop

Pimpers Paradise

Redemption Song

Slave Driver

So Much Troubles In The World

Stir It Up

Talkin' Blues

Them Belly Full

Want More

War

APPENDIX 3 The Black Brothers' Songs Selected for Analysis

Balada Pramuria

Cinta dan Pramuria

Dewi Kribo

Doa Pramuria

Hari Kiamat

Huembelo

Irian Jaya 1

Irian Jaya 2

Juwita Malam

Kaum Benalu

Keroncong Irian Jaya

Kisah Seorang Pramuria

Lonceng Kematian

Melati Plastik.

Misteri

Persipura

Pramuria Tapi Biarawati

Untukmu Pramuria