The implemantation of critical review in critical reading and writing 1 class a to achieve advanced level of readers.

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i x S T N E T N O C F O E L B A T e g a P E G A P E L T I

T ……… . i S E G A P L A V O R P P

A ……… ii T N E M E T A T

S OFWORK’SORIGINALITY………. i v I S A K I L B U P N A U J U T E S R E P N A A T A Y N R E

P ………. vi

T C A R T S B

A ……….. vii K A R T S B

A ……….. viii S T N E M E G D E L W O N K C

A ……….. ix

S T N E T N O C F O E L B A

T ……….. xi T

S I

L OFTABLES…...………. x vi S E R U G I F F O T S I

L ……….. xv I R E T P A H

C . INTRODUCTION 1

1 .

1 ResearchBackground………. 1 2

.

1 ResearchProblems……….. ₆ 3

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1 ProblemLimtiaiton……….. 7 4

.

1 ResearchObjecitves………... 7 5

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1 ResearchBeneftis………... 8 6

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1 Deifniitono fTerms……… 9 I I R E T P A H

C . REVIEWOFRELATEDLITERATURE 1 4 n o it p ir c s e D l a c it e r o e h T 1 .

2 ………... 1 4

n o it p e c r e P 1 . 1 .

2 ……… 1 5 f o e r u t a N 1 . 1 . 1 .

2 Percepiton………. 1 5 w e i v e R l a c it ir C 2 . 1 .

2 ………... 1 9 w e i v e R l a c it ir C f o s e l p i c n ir P 1 . 2 . 1 .

2 ………... 1 9

w e i v e R l a c it ir C n i s t c e p s A 2 . 2 . 1 .

2 ………... 2 1

d e t a r g e t n I f o n o it a t n e m e l p m I e h T 3 . 1 .

2 -skill sApproach 2 3 1 . 3 . 1 .

ii x g n it ir W d n a g n i d a e R l a c it ir C 2 . 3 . 1 .

2 ……… 2 5

g n i d a e R l a c it ir C f o e r u t a N 1 . 2 . 3 . 1 .

2 ………. 2 5

g n i d a e R l a c it ir C g n i h c a e T f o s e l p i c n ir P 2 . 2 . 3 . 1 .

2 ……… 2 7

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1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the researcher provides the basic foundation of this research which is divided in six sections. The first three sections are related to the research namely research background, research problems and problem limitation. The next two sections are related to the contribution of this research namely research objectives and research benefits. The last section is related to the variables in this research namely definition of terms.

1.1 Research Background

In the education field, students acquire most of the information from what they have read. As a consequence, it requires the students to have the skill to understand what they have read and to be sensitive and critical of what have been presented in the text in order to acquire the precise information. Hence, it is not a problem for those who have good skill in reading; it is a problem for those who are not able to do it. The fact, as stated by Grabe (2004), many students may not be used to reading texts that need comprehension, synthesis and critical thinking.

Language elements in their nature are skills that require certain abilities, but in their practical use one might need the skills to achieve a certain purpose, in this case is acquiring the precise information from the text. Therefore, this is a big point of weakness in teaching language skills

separately. According to Harmer (2007), there is some concern in separating the skills, especially since they are seldom separated in the real life. He also adds that the students cannot access meaning unless their brains are fully engaged with the text they are interacting with. Reading is not only a matter of understanding word per word presented in the text but also the information and the message or issue brought by the author. Thus, the ability to read a text is related to the ability to figure out how the writer expresses the idea and to be able to figure out the logical order of the writing itself.

Regarding that reason, one thing needs to be clear is the nature of reading. Reading is not a passive skill but an active skill. Reading as an active skill requires one to get closer to the text being read; interact with the text and understand its characteristics. It also requires one talking to the text as he or she creates the response to the text. Soliman (2012) proposes reading as the most important academic skill which enables the students to learn new information and find out the different perspectives and interpretations. Thus, by acquiring the new information, different perspectives, and interpretations, one has the chance to process the new information, different perspectives and interpretations to be something meaningful and beneficial for one and for others as he or she is sharing what has been discovered. By sharing what he or she discovered, he or she has the chance to share his or her opinion and position regarding the issue or perspective shaped by the author.

The phenomenon reveals that reading as an active skill is related to writing as one of the productive skills. Reading and writing, as stated by Dr. Joyce M. Morris, are forms of communication (as cited in Moyle, 1972). He explains further by stating that learning to read is not only to understand the language use in the text but also to understand the information provided. The primary functions of reading and writing is on how to gain the information and how to communicate the information to actualize one’s abilities in reading and writing.

In response to the issue, the idea of combining the two skills seems to be the most appropriate way of acquiring the abilities. It is appropriate in the way to promote the real communication learning. Meaningful communication, as described by Hinkel, is when people employ incremental language skills not in isolation, but in tandem. The action of combining two skills into one is called integrated skill (as cited in Harmer, 2007). The combination of the skills is meant to get the connection of the skills to fulfil a greater purpose of learning which is to be able to communicate what have been gained and make use of what have been learned in the real life tasks.

In the English Language Education Study Programme Sanata Dharma University (ELESP SDU), the programme of combining the skills has been implemented since 2010 for the third semester students. For reading and writing skills, the programme is called Critical Reading and Writing (CRW) course. The programme is implemented for two semesters starting from the third semester (CRW 1) and continuing to the fourth semester (CRW 2).

The course, CRW 1 class is expected to give the students practice to write responses critically based on the given texts or passages. The students are trained to apply logical principles, careful standard of evidence and reasoning to the analysis and discussion of claims, beliefs and issues. On the other hand, CRW 2 class is expected to facilitate the students to have an access to a large amount of reading where the students acquire the information. Thus, it enables the students to enhance the progress of their knowledge and the development of their critical reading and writing skills.

The idea of ideal implementation of integrated-skills course is to be able to give a place to actualize or to implement the real concept of how to relate and connect reading and writing. The implementation of integrated-skills course is employed in order to perform the real communication in a language learning context. Therefore, the researcher is interested in conducting the research on this topic to have an in depth investigation on how actually the implementation of critical review and the relation of the implementation to advanced level of readers as seen in critical reading and writing.

The most important problem is on the criteria of being critical readers and critical writers. However, many people never talk of how the process of being critical is. Therefore, whether the implementation of critical reading and writing by synthesizing the information from reading to perform a good writing is the appropriate way, and whether by connecting the topic and the information provided would be enough, the action of combining an

integrated-skills course brings the consequences that the implementation of tasks and stages which can help students to be critical readers and writers is important.

Critical review as proposed by Arnaudet and Barrett (1984) is a writing task of reviewing an article that calls for four sections of format; introduction, summary, critique, and conclusion. This task is a complex task which requires several processes of critical reading and critical writing, such as the abilities to analyze a text as to the author’s purpose, main idea or thesis, and organizational techniques, as well as proficiency at summarizing. In general, the way readers should do the critical review of an article is the same as the way readers usually should do the review of an article or a book in which the readers should identify the basic information of it, the summary and the conclusion. The difference is that in a critical review, the review itself should be more complex where the readers have the opportunity to give a precise critique; to show their position and to establish their critical point of view. Therefore, the core of critical review is on the critique. The readers, as they are encouraged to provide a critique, should possess critical reading, critical thinking and critical writing abilities towards what they have read.

This research is intended to investigate two big points. First, on how critical review in Critical Reading and Writing class 1 (CRW 1) is implemented. Second, on what the students and lecturer think about the implementation of critical review on reading. In this research, the researcher

would like to figure out whether the implementation of critical review in CRW 1 class can bring the students to achieve critical reading and writing skills.

Moreover, through this research, the researcher would like to find out whether critical review can be the bridge for students to achieve higher level of reading; the advanced level of readers. In this research, the researcher also would like to figure out the students’ and lecturer’s opinions towards the implementation of critical review in their class. Then, the researcher would like to find out what is or are the impact(s) that might be resulted by the implementation.

This research is conducted based on several reasons. First, reading does not only to know the language but also the message presented by the author. At the same point, the readers are encouraged to possess critical reading and critical thinking on reading. Second, reading as an active skill and writing as a productive skill encourage the students to be able to present what they have gained and to show their positions towards the issue presented.

1.2 Research Problems

In this research, the researcher proposes two research problems regarding the issue and topic discussed. The research problems formulated lead the researcher to decide the methodology employed for the research.

Thus, the research problems would be the guidelines on the process in conducting and reporting the research. The research problems are:

1. How is the implementation of critical review in CRW 1 class?

2. What do the students and lecturer think about the implementation of critical review on reading?

1.3 Problem Limitation

The research is limited to a critical review which in this research is seen as the process of critical reading, critical thinking and critical writing not on examination of its product. The limitation is also used for the further implication, advanced level of readers which categorized as those who possess critical thinking and reflective mind. In order to focus on the research, the researcher also limited the subject to CRW 1 students from batch 2011 ELESP SDU. Further elaboration of this point is elaborated in Chapter III.

1.4 Research Objectives

Based on the research problems, there are two research objectives intend to be achieved by the researcher. First is to figure out how the critical review in CRW 1 class is implemented. This would expose and explore the tasks and stages implemented in CRW 1 class. Second is to figure out what the students and lecturer think about the implementation of critical review

on reading. This would also expose and explore their opinions towards the implementation of critical review in their CRW 1 class.

1.5 Research Benefits

This research on the implementation of critical review in CRW 1 class as a bridge to achieve advanced level of readers is expected to bring benefits for four parties in the education field; the researcher herself, students who are undertaking CRW 1 course, lecturers who is implementing this critical review on the reading class and educators or researchers who are interested in this topic.

The researcher, as a language learner, concerns on the educational issues especially on language teaching. The benefit of this research for the researcher is the chance to explore more the phenomenon happened. As this research is focusing on the skill building (critical reading and writing), the researcher has the opportunity to explore the phenomenon happened based on the existing theories. This research is expected to be able to present better understanding of how the phenomenon happened.

Then, the students who are undertaking CRW 1 course also need to find out the task to develop their abilities in order to be critical. This research is expected to help the students to have better understanding of how to be critical in reading and writing. This research, especially for the respondents, is giving them opportunities to share what they understand and feel of critical reading and critical writing activities and tasks implemented.

For the lecturers who are implementing the critical review on the reading class, this research provides a discussion about how critical readers and critical writers should be when they are dealing with the texts. This research encourages the lecturer to reflect the implementation of critical review that he or she implemented in class to the theories or logic presented in this research to enrich his or her knowledge of appropriate tasks and stages. Then, the reflection can be used to modify the tasks and stages that he or she implemented.

For educators or researchers who are interested in this topic, this research could be one of the references they need to enrich their understanding on a critical review. This research is conducted to present how critical review in one of the EFL (English as foreign language) classes as a bridge to advanced level of readers is implemented. By reading this research, the educators or researchers could share their ideas based on their experience on the same topic or they could evaluate this research according to their needs. Overall, this research is dedicated to those who are studying and teaching at English language education and interested in this topic.

1.6 Definition of Terms

There are some terms used in this research. In order to make this research clear to the readers, the researcher provides some definitions of terms used in this research. This part gives the boundary or limitation of the

discussion about some terms used in this research so that misinterpretation could be avoided.

1.6.1 Critical Review

Critical review is a writing task that calls for four sections of format; introduction, summary, critique and conclusion. Critical review is a writing task of reviewing an article with critique as the core of the review presented (Arnaudet and Barrett, 1984). In this research, the focus of critical review is on the processes of being able to create a critique after reading the text. The critique and other aspects in critical review are elaborated in the teaching process in Critical Reading and Writing 1 class (CRW 1 class). This implementation of critical review with critique as the core is explored through the exploration of some sections in CRW 1 class.

1.6.2 Critical Reading and Writing 1 Class

Critical Reading and Writing 1 class is an integrated-skills course of reading and writing skills which is offered on the third semester in ELESP (English Language Education Study Programme) Sanata Dharma University (SDU). According to the course description, this course is designed to give students practice to write responses critically based on the given texts or passages. The texts are related to argumentative, persuasive and expository genre. They are trained to apply logical principles, careful standard of evidence and reasoning to the analysis and discussion of claims, beliefs and

issues (the syllabus of Critical Reading and Writing 1). In this research, the researcher focuses on the process of how this critical reading and writing conducted in a class to see the processes developed to be able to promote the critical readers and writers and their relations to critical review.

1.6.3 Critical Reading

Critical reading lies in assessing the extent to which authors provided adequate justification for the claims they make (Wallace & Wray, 2011). The reader rereads a text to identify patterns of elements -- information, values, assumptions, and language usage—throughout the discussion. These elements are tied together in an interpretation, an assertion of an underlying meaning of the text as a whole (Kurland, 2000). In this research, the researcher focuses on critical reading as the process to figure out how the ideas are argued including the analysis of the elements and ideas presented, the evaluation of the ideas, and the evidences provided in the text. This critical reading as a process to read critically the text without accepting easily all the information presented is seen through stages of reading; pre-reading, interpretive pre-reading, critical reading and post reading. Reading is the first skill that needs to be acquired before trying to produce the written text because the information written in a writing mostly derived from what has been read. This critical reading part would play the first step in acquiring the ability of being critical.

1.6.4 Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is involving and along with imagination, a twofold activity; analysis which is separating the parts of the problem, trying to see how things fit together, and evaluation which is judging the merit of the assumptions and the weight of the evidence in their favor (Barnet and Bedau, 1999). In this research, critical thinking is seen as a result of acquiring the critical reading skill. Critical thinking is a skill that enables the readers to identify the subject matter in a bigger and wider scope for the new perspective or paradigm by evaluating and interpreting the ideas presented. Therefore, critical thinking is the second step in acquiring and developing the critical ability by creating a response to the text.

1.6.5 Critical Writing

Critical writing lies in convincing the reader to accept the claims (Wallace & Wray, 2011). In this research, critical writing is explored and elaborated as the final step of developing the critical ability. It requires one to produce the critique and critical writing. As the final step, critical writing is a place for one to show what he or she gained after analyzing, evaluating and interpreting the text. This critical writing is seen through the process of producing the writing from three stages; the post reading, critical thinking, and critical writing.

1.6.6 Advanced Level of Readers

Advanced level of readers is readers’ reading level in which the readers possess critical thinking and reflective mind on what they have read as stated by Rosales, Jiminez, Haydee, and Soraya (2010). In this research, advanced level of readers is defined as the reading level where the readers applied analysis and evaluation of their readings and also applied the reflective mind towards what happened on their surroundings. Advanced level of readers is analyzed and evaluated as further implication of being critical both in reading and writing. The researcher believed that the ability of being critical towards some issues and cases would not stop on just judging, responding or evaluating them critically. It has a bigger purpose, implication and contribution to the future. Therefore, advanced level of readers is the further implication after implementing critical review in critical reading and writing. The relation and elaboration of them are explained in Chapter II.

14 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, the researcher provides the review of the theories employed. The theoretical description serves as the foundation of the research conducted by the researcher. The researcher also provides the theoretical framework serving as the logical link of the primary theories employed by the researcher to give the logical order of the research.

2.1 Theoretical Description

The theoretical description consists of theories employed as the foundation of this research. Perception as one of the primary theories employed in this research is the first point explored in the theoretical description. Next, the theory of critical review as the focus of this research is described in two sections; the principles and the aspects of critical review. After that, the researcher provides the theoretical description on the implementation of integrated-skills approach providing the further explanation on the integration and the elaboration on the relation between critical reading and critical writing. Next, the theoretical description focuses on the exploration of the advanced level of readers to give an in depth elaboration on the nature of advanced level of readers.

2.1.1 Perception

Perception is a common thing in almost all levels of human life. Since kids, people have tried to see things and their surroundings with their own way of seeing something. Adults employ perception in most of their relations and activities every day.

2.1.1.1Nature of Perception

The phenomenon, on how people usually create perception in their daily life shows that it is formed since long time ago. It happened because it is the nature of a human. Russell (1997) proposes perception as an activity which is dealing with sensory core and stimulus.

The role of sensory core is crucial in creating perception (visual perception). Hatfield and Epstein (1979) stated in their book “Early Modern Perceptual Theory” that visual perception has two conscious states; mental representation of the two-dimensional retinal image and our experience of the “visual world” of the object distributed in depth. What is taken by our sensory core then should be correlated to our mental representation which creates the first conscious state. After that, the percipient will take his experience to correlate it to the mental representation he got before.

That is how people start to respond and give opinion about what they see, what they hear, what they feel and what they think. People live their own way of thinking yet they are social creature who interact with other people and do so

many activities in their daily life. Thus, people are get used to make or create perception in their daily life.

Theoretically, Russell (1997) states that in order to describe perception, one needs to know the theory of knowledge. There are two theories of knowledge; one that focuses on cognition and one that focuses on perceiving. Russell in his book “An inquiry into meaning and truth” (1997) focuses his explanation on perceiving.

Russell (1997) defines perceiving as to accept the world appears as it is without being critical to it. From the definition, it emphasizes that perceiving is viewed with a view to determine whether it is cognition or not. If it is not, how it is related to the empirical knowledge of matters of fact will be explored. In his book, the empirical knowledge of the matters of fact is the prior knowledge or prior experience that one had before he or she perceived something new.

This idea leads to another term proposed by Russell (1997) that is perceptive experience. Perceptive experience, as we perceive something, is the process where we relate our knowledge of experience in the past and our knowledge of the future and the unexpected past or present. Then, One correlates what he or she perceived to the past experience and future prediction. This correlation is bridging one to a new perception of the thing he or she perceived. Thus, the logical relation of empirical knowledge we have is stated clearly through this process to discover the new perception of something.

On the other hand, the second theory of knowledge focuses on cognition. Kreitner and Kinicki (2008) state that perception is a cognitive process enabling people to interpret and understand their surroundings. This model of perception is

introduced by four-stage information-processing model; selective attention/comprehension, encoding and simplification, storage and retention, and retrieval and response. The first three stages are to describe how specific information and environmental stimuli are observed and stored in the memory. The fourth stage is to describe how mental representations turn into real world judgments and decisions. The four-stage information-processing sequence which is proposed by Kreitner and Kinicki (2008) is described further as follows.

1. Selective attention/comprehension

Attention, according to Kreitner and Kinicki (2008), is the process of becoming consciously aware of something or someone. Attention can be focused on information either from the environment or from the memory. In the relation to the stimuli, Kreitner and Kinicki stated that people tend to pay attention to salient stimuli. Something is salient when it stands out from its context. People have tendency to pay more attention to negative than positive information which leads to a negativity bias.

2. Encoding and simplification

Encoding as proposed by Kreitner and Kinicki (2008) is where the raw information is interpreted or translated into mental representations. In order to accomplish this, perceivers assign pieces of information to cognitive categories. Category is a number of objects that are considered equivalent. For categories of people, events, and objects, it is interpreted and evaluated by comparing their characteristics to information contained in schemata. A schema represents a person’s mental picture or summary

of a particular event or type of stimulus. Cognitive-category as stated previously is important to make the schemata meaningful, in the relation to encoding where the environment is being interpreted and evaluated. The interpretations and evaluations might be vary according to the four key reasons; first is people possess different information in the schemata used for interpretation, second is our moods and emotions influence our focus of attention and evaluations of others, third is people tend to apply recently used cognitive categories during encoding, and fourth is individual differences influence encoding.

3. Storage and retention

This stage involves storage of information in a long-term memory. This long-term memory involves event memory which contains category of event, semantic memory which contains category of semantic materials, and person memory which contains category of people. Event memory is composed of categories containing information about both specific and general events. Semantic memory refers to general knowledge of the world. Person memory contains information on a single individual or groups of people.

4. Retrieval and response

This stage shows that people retrieve information from the memory when they make judgments and decisions. Thus, judgments and decisions are either based on the process of drawing, interpreting and integrating the

categorical information stored in a long-term memory or on retrieving a summary judgment that was already made.

2.1.2 Critical Review

In the theoretical description of critical review, there are two main sections. First, the principles of critical review covering three main principles of critical review. Second, the aspects of critical review covering the main elements.

2.1.2.1Principles of Critical Review

In the academic field, especially English language, the ability to have a deeper understanding and critical way of thinking in both reading and writing is essential. The students are required to have the ability to perform critical review as they read and write an article. Critical review, as one of tasks that one needs to be performed in the academic reading, calls for a format; introduction, summary, critique and conclusion. Critical review is a complex task which demanding proficiency in all skills areas. That is why critical review is a task which is demanding several processes, such as analysis on the text as to the author’s purpose, main idea or thesis, and organizational techniques, as well as proficiency at summarizing.

Critical review performs a set of tasks that emphasize the process of employing all skills areas. Arnaudet and Barrett (1984) believe the most important part of critical review is the critique. Arnaudet and Barrett (1984) state that in reviewing an article, one actually performs a twofold purpose; to let the readers to

know enough about the content of the article so that they can understand the comments without actually having to read the article and to form his or her own impression as to value the article and to present the subjective impression to the readers clearly and honestly.

In the relation to what is a critical review, Arnaudet and Barrett (1984) state that there is no one correct way of reviewing an article in which they only suggest the basic aspects for reviewing critically. Introduction, summary and critique are obligatory in reviewing an article whereas conclusion may not be necessary depending on what has been said in the review and how those comments are organized. Both of them agree that in reviewing an article, the most important part is the critique. Critique as the core of critical review is a bridge to figure out what principles prop up the idea of critical review itself.

There are three principles of critical review. First, critical review aims to elicit a personal comment on a topic discussed. Second, in order to make the personal comments, one is encouraged to analyze and evaluate the content of the article. Third, unlike a pure summary, critical review by its very nature is subjective in which one must make judgment and comment on the article being reviewed.

2.1.2.2Aspects in Critical Review

Based on the nature of critical review proposed by Arnaudet and Barrett (1984) previously, there are four big aspects in a critical review; introduction, summary, critique and conclusion. In the reality, the implementation of critical

review is not exactly covering the four aspects proposed. There are some points or ideas from the aspects that are implemented. The elaboration of the idea of each aspect is presented as follows.

Introduction as the first aspect in critical review is a common aspect that can be found in almost all English writings. According to Arnaudet and Barrett (1984), introduction covers the basic information of an article yet it is an essential type of information, such as establishing the context, clarification of the subject as the further focus, establishing a critical point of view as the thesis, textual coherence through concessive contrast and reporting verbs. In establishing the context, one needs to mention the title and the author linked to some elegant techniques of shared knowledge, a rhetorical question, background information or a quotation. In clarification of the subject as the further focus, one needs to directly provide the subject of the article or discussion and also states or figures out the author’s purpose in writing the article. In establishing a critical point of view as the thesis, one needs to provide overall impression of the article. As it is an overall impression, one needs to state in brief the impression and the state whether he or she agrees on the ideas or not but without further elaboration on the reason and analysis of the idea. This part is only for giving some clues that one is expressing either approval or disapproval towards the ideas presented. In presenting textual coherence through concessive contrast, one will mention both positive and negative points of the ideas presented. This way of contrasting ideas is called concession. Concession as the contrasting of ideas is trying to contrast two or more differences of the same subject. Next is reporting verbs. Reporting

verbs are verbs used to restate someone else’s ideas. Arnaudet and Barrett (1984) propose four categories of reporting verbs, such as neutral verbs of restatements, verbs restatements with a + or—connotation, verbs of opinion and verbs of uncertainty.

Summary is the second aspect in critical review. According to Arnaudet and Barrett (1984), summary is the place where one needs to summarize the contents of the articles, such as the thesis or controlling idea, all important thoughts, relationships and examples which seem particularly important to one. It means in summary one is trying to put all the important information he gained from reading in order to make a precise collection of ideas and elaboration of the topic discussed.

Critique is the third aspect in critical review. According to Arnaudet and Barrett (1984), giving a personal comment is the aim of critical review. This part focuses on a personal judgment. Critique in critical review has a special function to elaborate and specifically support one’s judgments on the introduction part. In making the personal judgments, there are several criteria which should be considered; the important of the subject matter, the timelines of the article, the length of the article, the objectivity of the writer, the interpretation of the data, the thoroughness of treatment of the subject matter, the practicality of the suggestions, and the personal interest in the subject. They also stated that one should not necessarily pick all the criteria presented. Two or three criteria chosen to be developed thoroughly are fine.

Conclusion is the last aspect in a critical review. This part is an optional part. It is optional in which if the review presented is already specific, the conclusion is not an important part. However, if the review presented is general to the topic discussed, the conclusion is needed.

2.1.3 The implementation of integrated-skills approach

Theoretical description on integrated-skills approach focuses on the discussion on how to integrate two or more different skills in teaching. This theoretical description also emphasizes the connection between the skills. Therefore, the integration of skills is meant to achieve a bigger scope of learning.

2.1.3.1Integrating skills

Harmer (2007) believes that the acquiring language for the purpose of communication is using skills without isolation. This shows that Harmer is an expert who supports the idea of integrated-skills learning. Learning skills without isolation mean applying no separation of skills in learning a language. One can learn two or more skills in a time. This is important as he emphasizes that in order to perform a real life task meaningfully by using a language people need more than one skill to comprehend to perform better. There are several ways to integrate skills in learning a language. Harmer (2007) proposes some ways that can be used to combine skills in integrated-skills course.

The first combination is speaking as preparation and stimulus. Speaking session allows students to investigate their thoughts and feelings about a topic.

Teacher often asks students to discuss a topic as a way of activating their schemata or engaging them in a topic that they are going to read or hear about.

The second combination is texts as models. Students are greatly helped by being exposed to examples of writing or speaking which shows certain conventions for them to draw upon. One of the best ways to encourage the students to write certain kinds of report, for example, is by showing them some actual reports. The teacher can help them to analyze the structure and style. Then, when getting the students to give spoken directions, they will get the benefit from hearing other people doing it first.

The third combination is texts as preparation and stimulus. Teacher often uses written or spoken texts to stimulate students into some other kinds of works. A controversial reading passage may be the springboard for discussion or for a written form. Listening to a recording in which a speaker tells a dramatic story may provide a necessary stimulus for students to tell their own stories, or may be the basis for their written narrative.

The fourth combination is integrated tasks. Almost any speaking activity is bound to involve listening, but sometimes when students are involved in some kinds of cooperative writing, there will be speaking, listening, writing and reading almost simultaneously. Teacher frequently asks students to listen to something and take a message or note. Teacher also might ask them to prepare a spoken summary of something they have read, or read information on the internet as preparation for a role-play or some other longer pieces of works.

2.1.3.2Critical Reading and Writing

Theoretical description on critical reading and writing focuses the discussion on the exploration and elaboration of critical reading and critical writing. This theoretical description also emphasizes the nature of critical reading and critical writing. Then, the nature of critical reading and critical writing is explored. The principles of teaching in critical reading and critical writing are elaborated. Therefore, the exploration and elaboration of critical reading and critical writing are meant to figure out the whole picture of critical reading and critical writing.

2.1.3.2.1 Nature of Critical Reading

Reading is not only to know the language or words written in the text but also to perform an active process in which the readers need to interact with the text and finally get the message, perspective and new paradigm. According to Wallace and Wray (2011), the skill of critical reading lies in assessing the extent to which the authors have provided adequate justification for the claims they make. This means critical reading is encouraging the students to examine thoroughly the points presented by the author. This, they emphasize that the assessment depends partly on what the authors have communicated and partly on other relevant knowledge, experience and inference that the readers are able to bring into the frame. This understanding brings the readers to the truth that reading is interaction between the reader and the text, one’s prior knowledge and past experience on something, and the points presented in the text. That is how

being able to read critically ends up as the reader’s judgment on the text itself. According to Knott (n.d.), critical reading is to make a judgment on how a text is argued. The judgment on how the text is argued covers how the author sets the claim, supporting details, explanation, elaboration and example or evidence. This also means that critical reading is to make a judgment on how the author puts things together into one complete argument about the subject matter. This, she emphasizes that when one is critically reading a text then he or she is looking for ways of thinking about the subject matter. Thus, the aim of critical reading is not only to discover the new information provided in the text but also to figure out how the text works and how the arguments on the text support the topic of the text. From the points explained, Knott (n.d.) state that there are several characteristics of critical reading; central claims or purposes, context, kinds of reasoning, evidence and evaluation. The characteristics are explained in the following.

The nature of critical reading is explained through the explanation of five characteristics. The first characteristic is on the point of the goal of critical reading which focuses on the claims presented. In central claims or purposes, critical reading attempts to identify and access how these central claims are developed or argued. The second characteristic is on the point of the context brought by the text. In the context, critical reading begins with making a judgment about the context on what kind of audience is the text written for, who is it in the dialogue with and what historical context is the writing. The third characteristic is on the point of reason. In kinds of reasoning, critical reading distinguishes the kinds of

reasoning the text employed regarding what context is defined or used, whether a text appeal of the theory or theories, then how the theory or theories is(are) used to organize and interpret the data. The readers also can examine the organization of the text and how the author analyzed the materials or elements. The fourth characteristic is on the point of evidence provided by the author. In evidence, critical reading examines the evidence (supporting facts or examples) that the text presented. Then, the readers can consider the kind of evidence used, and how the evidence is used to develop the arguments and its controlling claims or concepts. The last characteristic is on the point of evaluation of the text. In evaluation, critical reading also may involve evaluation of the weaknesses and strengths of the text. This means critical reading uses analysis as a bridge to evaluate the points presented in the text.

2.1.3.2.2 Principles of Teaching Critical Reading

In teaching critical reading, RMIT University states that there are at least three ways: comprehension, analysis and interpretation. In reading with comprehension, one is reading to find out what the text says or the main ideas of the text. In reading with analysis, one is reading to find out what the text does or how is the information presented. In reading with interpretation, one is reading to find out what the text means in a broader context or what the text is saying.

Those ways of reading in their relation to each other enable the students to be critical of what they have read not only to accept all the information presented. Students in their first stage need to comprehend the text which means they need to

understand what the text is saying. Then, after understanding the text, they are encouraged to be able to understand whether the text is presenting good organization of ideas, whether the supporting details are related to the main ideas presented, and whether the arguments are supporting each other to build the subject matter. Next, the students are also encouraged to be able to analyze the message brought by the author on a larger scope by connecting it to their lives, their surrounding and their past experience.

According to Wheeler (2012) these ways of reading are developed into several stages of reading techniques in the implementation; pre-reading, interpretive reading and critical reading. In pre-reading, there are activities of preliminary examination, clarification of the text, and skeleton examination. These activities are implemented in some reading teaching techniques. According to Pardede (2006), out of those most important activities in pre-reading, there are previewing, skimming, and prediction about the text. Previewing, according to Pardede (2006), is the activity where students look at the titles, headings, and pictures and read the first few paragraphs and last paragraphs. From the description of the activities, the aim of this previewing is to encourage the students to get used to the text, the subjects, and the topic discussed before reading the whole text.

Skimming, according to Raygor and Raygor (1985) is different from normal reading in which not all materials are read because the aim is to get the general information of the text. From the definition of skimming, the researcher gained the idea that skimming is an activity to find out the general subject matter or issue

on the text by reading several parts of the text with the aim to generally describe what the text is about before reading the whole text.

Prediction, according to Smith, is the prior elimination of unlikely alternatives in which he proposes that prediction is the questions the readers ask the world (as cited in Pardede, 2006). Then, comprehension is receiving the answer. The definition given explained that when readers made prior questions towards the text, it means that the readers set some prior goals to be answered by the text itself based on the previewing and skimming activities.

In the interpretive reading, there are activities of finding important words, paraphrasing, summarizing, and understanding parts you do not understand. According to Kurland (2000), this stage of reading is also called pre-critical reading in which while reading one concerns on recognizing what the text says about the topic. The goal of it as stated by Kurland (2000) is to make sense of presentation as a sequence of thoughts, to understand the information, ideas, and opinions stated within the text from the sentence to sentence and paragraph to paragraph. However, in order to differentiate this stage from the critical reading stage, Kurland (2000) states that pre-critical reading only recognizes what the text says but not how the text portrays the subject matter.

In the critical reading, there are activities, such as asking initial questions, marking the notes to analyze the elements of the text, and evaluating the ideas and interpret the text. Knott (n.d.) states that to read critically is to make a judgment on how a text is argued. That is why she believed that critical reading is seen as ways of thinking about the subject matter. In order to understand reading as ways

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b Membaca dan Menuil sK irit s1 A .Keduaadalah t ugas -m

n a d a c a b m e m m a l a d n a k i s a t n e m e l p m ii d g n a y s a g u

t enuil sk irit spadaMembaca

K s il u n e M n a

d irit s 1 A sanga t membantu dalam pengembangan sis i k irit s n

a d a w s i s a h a

m pemahaman yang lebih baik ata sbacaan .Sebaga itambahan , k

n a s a l

u ir eitss baga isatur angkaian t ugasmemampukanmahasiswauntuksampa i t

a k g n it a d a

p lanjutandalammembacayatiupembaca itngkatl anjut. i

c n u K a t a

K :ulasan k ir , its membaca k irits ,berpiki rk irits ,menu il sk irit sdan pembaca itngkatl anjut